E.L-D. acknowledges support from the NIH (T32-AI007413 and T32-AG000114). SAS acknowledges support from the JDRF (COE-2019-861), the NIH (R01 DK135268, R01 DK108921, R01 DK135032, R01 DK136547, U01 DK127747), the Department of Veterans Affairs (I01 BX004444), the Brehm family, and the Anthony family.

The animal studies presented in this protocol were reviewed and approved by the University of Michigan Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Twenty-week-old male C57BL/6J mice, on either a 15-week regular fat diet (RFD) or high-fat diet (HFD), were used for this study.
1. Assessing mitophagy&#160;via the dye-based MtPhagy approach (Method 1)
<ol>
	<li>Mouse islet preparation and treatment
	<ol>
		<li>Perform islet culture and valinomycin exposure following the steps b...

Quantitative Analysis of Mitophagy in Murine Pancreatic &#946;-Cells

<ol>
	<li>Kaufman, B. A., Li, C., Soleimanpour, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitochondrial+regulation+of+&#946;-cell+function:+maintaining+the+momentum+for+insulin+release.">Mitochondrial regulation of &#946;-cell function: maintaining the momentum for insulin release.</a> Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 42, 91-104 (2015).</li><li>Soleimanpour, S. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+diabetes+susceptibility+gene+Clec16a+regulates+mitophagy.">The diabetes susceptibility gene Clec16a regulates mitophagy.</a> Cell. 157 (7), 1577-1590 (2014).</li><li>Pearson, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clec16a,+Nrdp1,+and+USP8+form+a+ubiquitin-dependent+tripartite+complex+that+regulates+&#946;-cell+mitophagy.">Clec16a, Nrdp1, and USP8 form a ubiquitin-dependent tripartite complex that regulates &#946;-cell mitophagy.</a> Diabetes. 67 (2), 265-277 (2018).</li><li>Hattori, N., Saiki, S., Imai, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+by+mitophagy.">Regulation by mitophagy.</a> International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology. 53, 147-150 (2014).</li><li>Berezhnov, A. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+pH+modulates+autophagy+and+mitophagy.">Intracellular pH modulates autophagy and mitophagy.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 291 (16), 8701-8708 (2016).</li><li>Sun, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+in+vivo+mitophagy.">Measuring in vivo mitophagy.</a> Molecular Cell. 60 (4), 685-696 (2015).</li><li>McWilliams, T. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=mito-QC+illuminates+mitophagy+and+mitochondrial+architecture+in+vivo.">mito-QC illuminates mitophagy and mitochondrial architecture in vivo.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 214 (3), 333-345 (2016).</li><li>Aoyagi, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+beta+cell-specific+mitophagy+reporter+mouse+shows+that+metabolic+stress+leads+to+accumulation+of+dysfunctional+mitochondria+despite+increased+mitophagy.">A new beta cell-specific mitophagy reporter mouse shows that metabolic stress leads to accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria despite increased mitophagy.</a> Diabetologia. 66 (1), 147-162 (2023).</li><li>Ma, X., Ding, W. X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+fluorescence+imaging+based-assay+to+monitor+mitophagy+in+cultured+hepatocytes+and+mouse+liver.">A fluorescence imaging based-assay to monitor mitophagy in cultured hepatocytes and mouse liver.</a> Liver Research. 5 (1), 16-20 (2021).</li><li>Sidarala, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitophagy+protects+&#946;+cells+from+inflammatory+damage+in+diabetes.">Mitophagy protects &#946; cells from inflammatory damage in diabetes.</a> JCI Insight. 5 (24), 141138 (2020).</li><li>Gingerich, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+intrinsically+disordered+protein+region+encoded+by+the+human+disease+gene+CLEC16A+regulates+mitophagy.">An intrinsically disordered protein region encoded by the human disease gene CLEC16A regulates mitophagy.</a> Autophagy. 19 (2), 525-543 (2023).</li><li>Sun, N., Malide, D., Liu, J., Rovira, I. I., Combs, C. A., Finkel, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+fluorescence-based+imaging+method+to+measure+in+vitro+and+in+vivo+mitophagy+using+mt-Keima.">A fluorescence-based imaging method to measure in vitro and in vivo mitophagy using mt-Keima.</a> Nature Protocols. 12 (8), 1576-1587 (2017).</li><li>Zhao, J., Bertoglio, B. A., Gee, K. R., Kay, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+zinc+indicator+FluoZin-3+is+not+perturbed+significantly+by+physiological+levels+of+calcium+or+magnesium.">The zinc indicator FluoZin-3 is not perturbed significantly by physiological levels of calcium or magnesium.</a> Cell Calcium. 44 (4), 422-426 (2008).</li><li>Da Silva Xavier, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Cells+of+the+Islets+of+Langerhans.">The Cells of the Islets of Langerhans.</a> Journal of Clinical Medicine. 7 (3), 54 (2018).</li><li>Thapa, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+&#946;-cell+function+using+a+zinc-responsive+MRI+contrast+agent+may+identify+first+responder+islets.">Imaging &#946;-cell function using a zinc-responsive MRI contrast agent may identify first responder islets.</a> Frontiers in Endocrinology. 12, 809867 (2022).</li><li>Iwashita, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+cell+imaging+of+mitochondrial+autophagy+with+a+novel+fluorescent+small+molecule.">Live cell imaging of mitochondrial autophagy with a novel fluorescent small molecule.</a> ACS Chemical Biology. 12 (10), 2546-2551 (2017).</li><li>Crowley, L. C., Christensen, M. E., Waterhouse, N. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+mitochondrial+transmembrane+potential+by+TMRE+staining.">Measuring mitochondrial transmembrane potential by TMRE staining.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2016 (12), 087361 (2016).</li><li>Klein, B., W&#246;rndl, K., L&#252;tz-Meindl, U., Kerschbaum, H. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perturbation+of+intracellular+K(+)+homeostasis+with+valinomycin+promotes+cell+death+by+mitochondrial+swelling+and+autophagic+processes.">Perturbation of intracellular K(+) homeostasis with valinomycin promotes cell death by mitochondrial swelling and autophagic processes.</a> Apoptosis. 16 (11), 1101-1117 (2011).</li><li>Ji, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toll-like+receptors+TLR2+and+TLR4+block+the+replication+of+pancreatic+&#946;+cells+in+diet-induced+obesity.">Toll-like receptors TLR2 and TLR4 block the replication of pancreatic &#946; cells in diet-induced obesity.</a> Nature Immunology. 20 (6), 677-686 (2019).</li><li>Sauvat, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+cellular+viability+by+automated+microscopy+and+flow+cytometry.">Quantification of cellular viability by automated microscopy and flow cytometry.</a> Oncotarget. 6 (11), 9467-9475 (2015).</li><li>Liu, Y. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mt-Keima+detects+PINK1-PRKN+mitophagy+in+vivo+with+greater+sensitivity+than+mito-QC.">Mt-Keima detects PINK1-PRKN mitophagy in vivo with greater sensitivity than mito-QC.</a> Autophagy. 17 (11), 3753-3762 (2021).</li><li>Mauro-Lizcano, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+method+to+assess+mitophagy+flux+by+flow+cytometry.">New method to assess mitophagy flux by flow cytometry.</a> Autophagy. 11 (5), 833-843 (2015).</li></ol>

This protocol described two complementary methods to quantify mitophagy flux in dissociated primary mouse islets. Using the mt-Keima method, an increase in mitophagy was quantified as an increased ratio of acidic (561 nm)/neutral (405 nm) cells, whereas in the MtPhagy method, increased mitophagy flux was quantified as an increase in the FluozinhighMtPhagyhighTMRElow cell population. These methods allow for rapid, quantitative, and &#946;-cell-specific assessments of mitophagy flux.
<p...

Pancreatic &#946;-cells produce and secrete insulin to meet metabolic demands, and &#946;-cell dysfunction is responsible for hyperglycemia and diabetes onset in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. &#946;-Cells couple glucose metabolism with insulin secretion via mitochondrial energetics and metabolic output, which depend on a reserve of functional mitochondrial mass1,2,3. To maintain optimal &#946;-cell function, &#946;-cells rely on mitochondrial quality control mechanisms to remove aged or damaged mitochondria and preserve functional mitochondrial mass4. Selective mitochondrial autophagy, also known as mitophagy, is a key component of the mitochondrial quality control pathway.
Assessments of mitophagy in live cells often rely on changes in mitochondrial pH that occur during mitophagy. Mitochondria have a slightly alkaline pH, and healthy mitochondria normally reside in the pH-neutral cytosol. During mitophagy, damaged or dysfunctional mitochondria are selectively incorporated into autophagosomes and eventually cleared within acidic lysosomes5. Several in vivo transgenic mitophagy reporter mouse models, such as mt-Keima6, mitoQC7, and CMMR8, as well as transfectable mitophagy probes, such as the Cox8-EGFP-mCherry plasmid9, utilize this pH change to provide quantitative assessments of mitophagy. Use of transgenic mice expressing the mt-Keima pH-sensitive dual-excitation ratiometric probe has been optimized for mitophagy assessments in islets and &#946;-cells via flow cytometry10,11. The ratio of acidic-to-neutral mt-Keima wavelength emissions (the ratio of acidic 561 nm to neutral 480 nm excitation) can be used to robustly quantify mitophagy6,12.
This protocol describes an optimized approach to assess mitophagy flux in primary islets and &#946;-cells isolated from mt-Keima transgenic mice10,11. While mt-Keima is a highly sensitive probe, it requires either complicated animal breeding schemes or the transfection of cells, which can often be challenging when working in combination with other genetic models or with primary human islets. Additionally, the use of multiple fluorescence lasers and detectors to identify neutral and acidic cell populations can limit the combinatorial use of other fluorescent reporters.
To overcome these challenges, this protocol also describes a complementary, single fluorescent channel, dye-based method for robust detection of mitophagy in &#946;-cells from isolated mouse islets. This approach, referred to as the MtPhagy method, utilizes a combination of three cell-permeable dyes to select for &#946;-cells, quantify the cell populations actively undergoing mitophagy, and assess mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP or &#916;&#968;m) simultaneously.
The first of these dyes is Fluozin-3-AM, a cell-permeable Zn2+ indicator with an Ex/Em 494/516 nm13. Mouse islets comprise a heterogeneous population of functionally distinct cells, including &#945;-, &#946;-, &#948;-, and PP cells. &#946;-Cells comprise approximately 80% of cells within the mouse islet and can be distinguished from other islet cell types due to their high Zn2+ concentration within insulin granules14,15, allowing for identification of &#946;-cells as the Fluozin-3-AMhigh population. The MtPhagy dye, a pH-sensitive dye that is immobilized on mitochondria via a chemical bond and emits weak fluorescence, is also utilized in this protocol16. Upon mitophagy induction, damaged mitochondria are incorporated into the acidic lysosome, and the MtPhagy dye increases its fluorescence intensity within the low pH environment (Ex/Em 561/570-700 nm).
Additionally, Tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester (TMRE), is used to assess MMP. TMRE is a cell-permeable positively charged dye (Ex/Em 552/575 nm) that is sequestered by healthy mitochondria due to the relative negative charge upheld by their membrane potential17. Damaged or unhealthy mitochondria dissipate their membrane potential, resulting in decreased ability to sequester TMRE. Utilizing these dyes together, &#946;-cells undergoing mitophagy can be identified as the FluozinhighMtPhagyhighTMRElow population via flow cytometry. Since mitophagy is a dynamic rather than static process, this protocol was optimized to assess mitophagy flux using valinomycin, a K+-ionophore that induces mitophagy following dissipation of MMP18. Comparison of mitophagy in the presence and absence of valinomycin allows for assessment of mitophagy flux in different sample groups.
The dye-based nature of the current approach allows it to be extrapolated to human islets and other difficult-to-transfect cell types and circumvents the need for complicated animal breeding schemes, unlike the mt-Keima protocol. The overarching goal of this protocol is to quantify mitophagy in &#946;-cells at the single-cell level via two independent flow cytometry-based methods. Taken together, this protocol describes two powerful and complementary methods that allow for both precision and flexibility in the quantitative study of mitochondrial quality control.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibiotic-Antimycotic</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15240-062</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Attune NxT Flow Cytometer</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A24858</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI (4&#39;,6-Diamidino-2-Phenylindole, Dihydrochloride)</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D1306</td>
			<td>DAPI reconstituted in ddH2O to reach 0.2 &#181;g/mL stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl Sulfoxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>317275</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fatty Acid Free heat shock BSA powder</td>
			<td>Equitech</td>
			<td>BAH66</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td>Gemini Bio</td>
			<td>900-108</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluozin-3AM&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>F24195</td>
			<td>100 &#956;g Fluozin-3AM powder reconstituted in 51 &#956;L DMSO and 51 &#956;L Pluronic F-127 to reach 1 mM stock.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gibco&#160;RPMI 1640 Medium</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11-875-093</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES (1M)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15630-080</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MtPhagy dye</td>
			<td>Dojindo</td>
			<td>MT02-10</td>
			<td>5 &#956;g MtPhagy powder reconstituted with 50 &#956;L DMSO to reach 100 &#956;M stock.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MtPhagy dye</td>
			<td>Dojindo</td>
			<td>MT02-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin (100x)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td>1x Solution used in procotol by diluting 1:10 in ddH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffered saline, 10x</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP399-20</td>
			<td>1x Solution used in procotol by diluting 1:10 in ddH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Pyruvate (100x)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>11360-070</td>
			<td>5 &#956;g MtPhagy powder reconstituted with 50 &#956;L DMSO to reach 100 &#956;M stock.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TMRE [Tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester, perchlorate]</td>
			<td>Anaspec</td>
			<td>AS-88061</td>
			<td>TMRE powder reconstituted in DMSO to reach 100 &#956;M stock.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA (0.05%), phenol red</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>25300054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Valinomycin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>V0627</td>
			<td>Valinomycin powder reconsituted in DMSO to reach 250 nM stock.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

complementary approaches to interrogate mitophagy flux in pancreatic &#946;-cells

Mitophagy is a quality control mechanism necessary to maintain optimal mitochondrial function. Dysfunctional &#946;-cell mitophagy results in insufficient insulin release. Advanced quantitative assessments of mitophagy often require the use of genetic reporters. The mt-Keima mouse model, which expresses a mitochondria-targeted pH-sensitive dual-excitation ratiometric probe for quantifying mitophagy via flow cytometry, has been optimized in &#946;-cells. The ratio of acidic-to-neutral mt-Keima wavelength emissions can be used to robustly quantify mitophagy. However, using genetic mitophagy reporters can be challenging when working with complex genetic mouse models or difficult-to-transfect cells, such as primary human islets. This protocol describes a novel complementary dye-based method to quantify &#946;-cell mitophagy in primary islets using MtPhagy. MtPhagy is a pH-sensitive, cell-permeable dye that accumulates in the mitochondria and increases its fluorescence intensity when mitochondria are in low pH environments, such as lysosomes during mitophagy. By combining the MtPhagy dye with Fluozin-3-AM, a Zn2+ indicator that selects for &#946;-cells, and Tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester (TMRE) to assess mitochondrial membrane potential, mitophagy flux can be quantified specifically in &#946;-cells via flow cytometry. These two approaches are highly complementary, allowing for flexibility and precision in assessing mitochondrial quality control in numerous &#946;-cell models.

Author Spotlight: Assessment of Mitophagy Flux in Pancreatic &#946;-Cells Using Effective and Robust Complementary Approaches 

Complementary Approaches to Interrogate Mitophagy Flux in Pancreatic &#946;-Cells

Our protocol describes two complementary methods to study beta-cell mitophagy flux at the single-cell resolution via flow cytometry. The mt-Keima protocol utilizes a genetic mitophagy reporter, whereas the MtPhagy protocol combines three fluorescent dyes, which makes it easy to extrapolate to difficult-to-transfect cells in human samples. Assessments of mitophagy using traditional biochemical approaches and imaging approaches are both time consuming and challenging.Thus, it's important to develop new, robust, and effective methods to study mitophagy flux in beta-cells. Both the mt-Keima and MtPhagy method are quantitative assessments that are efficient for studying mitophagy flux in pancreatic beta cells. So, the Soleimanpour lab focuses on the different mechanisms that drive pancreatic beta-cell failure and diabetes.And we specifically focus on the different aspects of mitochondrial lifecycle, including mitophagy, to understand how defects in mitochondrial function drive the development of diabetes.

Assessing mitophagy via the dye-based MtPhagy approach 
This dye-based approach was optimized to analyze mitophagy flux within primary mouse &#946;-cells without the need for a genetic reporter, using Fluozin-3-AM, TMRE, and MtPhagy as well as DAPI to exclude dead cells. By pairing these dyes with valinomycin to induce mitophagy, this protocol outlines a dye-based method to selectively measure mitophagy flux in primary mouse &#946;-cells18. For the data shown using this MtPha...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Mitophagy Flux in Pancreatic β-Cells Using Effective and Robust Complementary Approaches at JoVE.com

This protocol outlines two methods for the quantitative analysis of mitophagy in pancreatic &#946;-cells: first, a combination of cell-permeable mitochondria-specific dyes, and second, a genetically encoded mitophagy reporter. These two techniques are complementary and can be deployed based on specific needs, allowing for flexibility and precision in quantitatively addressing mitochondrial quality control.

Mitophagy is a quality control mechanism necessary to maintain optimal mitochondrial function. Dysfunctional &#946;-cell mitophagy results in insufficient ...

complementary-approaches-to-interrogate-mitophagy-flux-pancreatic