visualizing mushroom body neurons in drosophila brains via immunostaining

Visualizing Mushroom Body Neurons in Drosophila Brains via Immunostaining

Under the microscope, use a P200 pipette to transfer 10 to 15 dissected brains at the same genotype into a 0.5-milliliter microcentrifuge tube filled with 4% paraformaldehyde diluted in PTN. Then, incubate the brains for 20 minutes with slow rocking at room temperature. Following the fixation, allow brains to settle to the bottom of the tube, then remove the fixative.
Next, perform two quick washes with 500 microliters of PTN per wash. Exchange the PTN as soon as the brains settle in the tube. Next, perform three long washes with PTN using gentle agitation at room temperature.
Following these washes, the brains may be stored overnight at 4 degrees Celsius in PTN. After removing the last PTN wash, incubate the brains in 0.5 milliliters of blocking solution for at least 30 minutes at room temperature, and with gentle agitation. After removing the blocking solution, add the primary antibodies diluted in blocking solution, and incubate the brains at 4 degrees Celsius for two days with gentle agitation.
Remove the primary antibody using the 5-wash PTN washing regiment, and then apply the secondary antibodies. Allow these antibodies to incubate with the tissues for three hours at room temperature while shielded from light with rocking.
After incubating brains in the secondary antibody solution, apply the PTN wash regiment, covering the samples in foil after each wash, and finish by removing as much buffer as possible. Next, add 75 microliters of fluorescent anti-fade mounting medium and flow the brains and medium in and out of the pipette tip just once. The tube may be then wrapped in foil and stored at 4 degrees Celsius for several days, but ideally, proceed directly with mounting.
To mount the brains, build a bridge slide. Position two base coverslips roughly 1 centimeter apart on a positively-charged slide. Make certain that the positively-charged slide is face up. Then, adhere the coverslips to the slide with finger nail polish, and let the polish dry completely before proceeding.
Next, place the slide under a stereomicroscope, and pipette brains and medium into the space between the coverslips. Be sure to adjust the lighting to improve visualization of the brains.
Next, aspirate the extra mounting media from the slide being careful to avoid the brains. Then, wick away remaining excess mounting media. This will allow the brains to be positioned more precisely.
Now using forceps, orient the brains into a grid pattern with their antennal lobes facing up. Then, place a coverslip over the brains, and use finger nail polish to seal the edges of the top coverslip that are attached to the base coverslips. Now, load the center cavity with fresh mounting media dropwise, allowing the media to be drawn under the coverslip by capillary action. When the cavity is filled, seal it in completely using clear finger nail polish.

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1. Fixation and Immunofluorescent Staining Procedure
<ol>
	<li>Using a p200 pipette, transfer dissected brains from the 9-well dish to a 0.5 mL microcentrifuge tube filled with 0.5 mL of 4% paraformaldehyde diluted in PTN (0.1 M Sodium Phosphate Buffer pH 7.2, 0.1% nonionic surfactant). At least 10 - 15 brains of the same genotype can be combined into one microcentrifuge tube. All remaining steps (until mounting of brains onto slides) are completed in 0.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes. 
	CAUTION: Paraformaldehyde (PFA) should be handled in a fume hood. PFA waste should be saved and disposed of properly. Twenty percent of the paraformaldehyde purchased in glass ampules can be aliquoted into microcentrifuge tubes and stored at -20 &#176;C until needed.</li>
	<li>Inside a fume hood, incubate brains in 4% paraformaldehyde for 20 min with slow-speed rocking at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Following fixation, allow brains to settle to the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube by gravity. 
	NOTE: The brains may occasionally stick to the microcentrifuge tube&#39;s side. If this occurs, it is usually helpful to laterally rotate the tube between the index finger and thumb or gently tap the tube on the bench to promote the sinking of the brains.</li>
	<li>Remove the fixative using a p1000 pipette and perform two &#34;quick&#34; washes with 500 &#956;L of PTN, allowing the brains to settle to the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube between washes. During these quick washes, once all the brains have settled by gravity to the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube, the PTN can be immediately exchanged for fresh buffer; no additional wash time is required. 
	NOTE: Typically, leaving extra buffer in the tube is preferable to risking brain removal. Careful examination of the pipette tip is often required to ensure no brains have been mistakenly removed from the tube. If brains have been accidentally pipetted into the tip, dispense them back into the microcentrifuge tube, wait for the brains to settle, and then continue removing any remaining PTN.</li>
	<li>After the last quick wash, use a p1000 pipette to perform three &#34;long&#34; washes: add 500 &#956;L of PTN and wash for 20 min at room temperature on a rocker/nutator. All future &#34;long&#34; washes should be for 20 mins. 
	NOTE: Fixed brains may be stored overnight at 4 &#176;C in PTN following these washes.</li>
	<li>Remove the last wash using a p1000 pipette and incubate brains on a rocker or nutator at room temperature in 0.5 mL of blocking solution [PTN + 5% normal goat serum (NGS)] for at least 30 min at room temperature.
	<ol>
		<li>Goat secondary antibodies will be used in subsequent protocol steps. If secondary antibodies from another species are used, normal serum from that species (rather than NGS) should be used in the blocking and antibody solutions.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Using a p1000 pipette, remove the blocking solution and add the primary antibody diluted in PTN (PTN + 5% NGS + diluted primary antibody). When using a primary antibody for the first time, the optimal dilution of that antibody should be determined empirically. 
	NOTE: For visualizing mushroom body neurons, antibodies recognizing Fas2 are typically used. These antibodies are available from the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (DSHB) as antibody 1D4 and should be diluted 1:20 in PTN + 5% NGS.</li>
	<li>Incubate brains in primary antibody solution on a rocker/nutator for 2 - 3 nights at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Following incubation with primary antibodies, allow brains to settle to the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube and then remove the primary antibody solution.</li>
	<li>Using a p1000 pipette, perform 2 &#34;quick&#34; washes and 3 &#34;long&#34; 20 min washes with 0.5 mL of PTN as described above in Steps 1.4 and 1.5, carefully allowing brains to settle by gravity to the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube between each wash.</li>
	<li>Incubate brains for 3 h at room temperature with appropriate fluorescently labeled secondary antibodies. Secondary antibodies are usually diluted in 0.5 mL of PTN + 5% NGS at a concentration of 1:200. 
	NOTE: Once fluorescent secondary antibodies have been added, brains should be kept in the dark for the remainder of the experiment.</li>
	<li>Following secondary antibody incubation, allow brains to settle to the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube and remove the secondary antibody solution.</li>
	<li>Perform 2 &#34;quick&#34; washes and 3 &#34;long&#34; 20 min washes with 0.5 mL of PTN as described above in Steps 1.4 and 1.5, carefully allowing brains to settle to the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube between each wash.</li>
	<li>Following the third &#34;long&#34; 20 min wash, use a p200 pipette to remove as much buffer as possible.</li>
	<li>Add 75 &#956;L of fluorescent anti-fade mounting medium to the brains. Pipette brains and mounting medium into the pipette tip once to mix. Do not invert the tube since brains may become stuck on the cap or sides of the microcentrifuge tube. 
	NOTE: Following suspension of brains in mounting medium, tubes may be wrapped in aluminum foil to slow fluorophore quenching and stored at 4 &#176;C overnight. If necessary, brains can be stored for several days at 4 &#176;C but should ideally be mounted onto slides as soon as possible.&#160;&#160;</li>
</ol>
2. Mounting Adult D. melanogaster Brains onto Microscope Slides and Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Build a &#34;bridge&#34; slide. Position two &#34;base&#34; coverslips roughly 1 cm apart on a positively charged slide. Ensure that the positively charged side of the slide is facing up. Adhere the coverslips to the slide with fingernail polish, as shown in Figure 1A. Sealing the three outer edges of each base cover slip with fingernail polish is usually helpful to ensure mounting media does not wick under these base coverslips. Let fingernail polish dry completely (10 - 15 min) before proceeding.</li>
	<li>Place the slide under the stereomicroscope and pipette the mounting media solution containing the dissected brains into the space between the two coverslips. To provide more contrast, it is helpful to maneuver the gooseneck lights so that they are parallel with the bench top.</li>
	<li>Remove extra mounting media from the slide using a pipette, being careful not to pipette the brains off the slide.</li>
	<li>Wick away extra mounting media. This will allow the brains to be positioned more precisely during the next step.</li>
	<li>Using a pair of forceps and the stereomicroscope, position the brains on the slide in a grid pattern with antennal lobes facing up.</li>
	<li>Place a cover slip (the &#34;bridge&#34;) over the brains (Figure 1A). Use fingernail polish to seal the sides of the bridge cover slip where they contact the &#34;base&#34; cover slips.</li>
	<li>Using a p200 pipette, slowly fill the center cavity under the bridge with fresh mounting media (Figure 1B). Place one drop at a time on the open edge of the center coverslip and allow the mounting media to wick under the center bridge coverslip. Continue until the entire cavity is filled with mounting media, then seal the top and bottom with clear fingernail polish.</li>
	<li>Once the fingernail polish is dry, image the slides immediately or store in a lightproof tight slide box at -20 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Within one week, image brains using a laser-scanning confocal microscope with excitation lasers and filter cubes appropriate to the chosen fluorescent secondary antibodies. Z-stack images of mushroom body neurons are typically obtained using 20X or 40X objectives.&#160;</li>
</ol>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdissection forceps/tweezers</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td>505-NM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard dishes</td>
			<td>Living Systems Instrumentation</td>
			<td>DD-50-S-BLK</td>
			<td>Available from amazon.com</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fas2 Antibody</td>
			<td>Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank</td>
			<td>1D4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chaoptin Antibody</td>
			<td>Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank</td>
			<td>24B10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFP Antibody&#160;</td>
			<td>Aves Lab&#160;</td>
			<td>GFP-1010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa488 goat anti-mouse 
			secondary antibody</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher&#160;</td>
			<td>A-11001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa488 goat anti-chicken 
			secondary antibody</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher&#160;</td>
			<td>A-11039</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa647 goat anti-mouse secondary antibody</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>A-21236</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20% paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscope Services</td>
			<td>RT15713</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VectaShield</td>
			<td>Vector Labs</td>
			<td>H-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SuperFrost Plus Slides</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>99-910-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslips</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>12-553-454</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na Phosphate Buffer monobasic&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma&#160;</td>
			<td>S3139</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na phosphate Buffer dibasic&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma&#160;</td>
			<td>S3264</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X 100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>X100-100ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fingernail polish</td>
			<td>Electron Microscope Services (EMS)</td>
			<td>72180</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stereomicroscope</td>
			<td>Leica S6D with KL300 LED light source</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>9-well dish (spot plate)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89090-482</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nutator/rocker</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>22-363-152 or 88-861-041</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>35mm dish</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>32-103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>50-366-794</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kimwipe</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>06-666</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potential Fixation Buffers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PTN Buffer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>0.1M NaPhosphate, pH 7.2, 0.1% Triton-X-100, Typically make up 0.5 L of 0.1M NaPhosphate buffer and aliquote 50ml at a time as needed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fly Stocks available from Bloomington</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>elav (c155)-GAL4</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BL458</td>
			<td>Pan-neuronal GAL4 driver</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>w*;;;OK107-GAL4</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BL 854</td>
			<td>GAL4 driver for all mushroom body neurons (OK107-GAL4 insertion is on the 4th chromosome)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>y(1), w(67c23); c739-GAL4</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BL 7362</td>
			<td>GAL4 driver for alpha and beta lobes (on 2nd chromosome)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>y(1), w(67c23); c739-GAL4, UAS- CD8-GFP</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BL 64305</td>
			<td>GAL4 driver for alpha and beta lobes, also contains UAS-CD8- GFP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>w*; 201Y-GAL4</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BL 4440</td>
			<td>GAL4 driver for primarily the gamma lobes of mushroom body (on 2nd chromosome)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>y(1), w(67c23); 201Y-GAL4, UAS- CD8-GFP</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BL 64296</td>
			<td>GAL4 driver for mushroom body gamma lobes, also contains UAS- CD8-GFP</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

Source: Kelly, S. M., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/56174">Dissection and Immunofluorescent Staining of Mushroom Body and Photoreceptor Neurons in Adult Drosophila melanogaster Brains.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2017).
This video demonstrates a detailed immunostaining protocol to visualize phenotypic defects in the mushroom bodies of mutant Drosophila brains. The protocol involves using antibodies against Fas2, a protein involved in axonal guidance that facilitates the proper morphological and functional development of the mushroom body.

<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/22979/22979_Figure1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Mounting brains in preparation for immunofluorescence imaging. (A) Brains are mounted on SuperFrost Plus slides with a bridge cover to prevent brain flattening. Two &#34;base&#34; cover slips are adhered to a SuperFrost Plus positively-charged slide with clear fingernail polish and dissected brains are placed between them. A clear &#34;bridge&#34; cover slip is placed above the brains a...

1. Fixation and Immunofluorescent Staining Procedure

	Using a p200 pipette, transfer dissected brains from the 9-well dish to a 0.5 mL microcentrifuge ...

Place wild-type and mutant Drosophila brains in a solution containing a fixative and a detergent. Incubate with gentle rocking.&#160;
The fixative preserves the tissue morphology, while the detergent permeabilizes cell membranes.
Allow the brains to settle, then remove the solution.
Wash the tissues with a buffer.
Add a blocking solution to prevent non-specific antibody binding.
Remove the solution and add primary antibodies targeting a specific protein that regulates axonal development in the brain&#39;s mushroom body, or MB, neurons.
Incubate to promote antibody binding.
Wash with buffer to remove unbound antibodies.
Incubate with fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibodies targeting the primary antibodies.
Wash again to remove unbound antibodies, then resuspend the brains in a mounting medium.
Mount the brains on a bridge slide and visualize them under a fluorescence microscope.
Compared to the wild-type, the mutant brains exhibit a defective phenotype, with axonal mis-projections and missing MB lobes.

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In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new method of Ca2+-imaging using the bioluminescent reporter GFP-aequorin (GA) has been developed. This new technique relies on the fusion of the GFP and aequorin genes, producing a molecule capable of binding calcium and&#160;&#8212; with the addition of its cofactor coelenterazine &#8212; emitting bright light that can be monitored through a photon collector. Transgenic lines carrying the GFP-aequorin gene have been generated for both mice and Drosophila. In Drosophila, the GFP-aequorin gene has been placed under the control of the GAL4/UAS binary expression system allowing for targeted expression and imaging within the brain. This method has subsequently been shown to be capable of detecting both inward Ca2+-transients and Ca2+-released from inner stores. Most importantly it allows for a greater duration in continuous recording, imaging at greater depths within the brain, and recording at high temporal resolutions (up to 8.3 msec). Here we present the basic method for using bioluminescent imaging to record and analyze Ca2+-activity within the mushroom bodies, a structure central to learning and memory in the fly brain.

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Here we present a novel Ca2+-imaging approach using a bioluminescent reporter. This approach uses a fused construct GFP-aequorin which binds to Ca2+ and emits light, eliminating the need for light excitation. Significantly this method permits long continuous imaging, access to deep brain structures and high temporal resolution.

在基于生物发光钙指标GFP的水母体内脑功能成像方法

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new ...

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神经科学

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. Learning-induced changes in synaptic transmission are often distributed across many neurons and levels of processing in the brain. Therefore, methods to visualize learning-dependent synaptic plasticity across neurons are needed. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster represents a particularly favorable model organism to study neuronal circuits underlying learning. The protocol presented here demonstrates a way in which the processes underlying the formation of associative olfactory memories, i.e., synaptic activity and their changes, can be monitored in vivo. Using the broad array of genetic tools available in Drosophila, it is possible to specifically express genetically encoded calcium indicators in determined cell populations and even single cells. By fixing a fly in place, and opening the head capsule, it is possible to visualize calcium dynamics in these cells whilst delivering olfactory stimuli. Additionally, we demonstrate a set-up in which the fly can be subjected, simultaneously, to electric shocks to the body. This provides a system in which flies can undergo classical olfactory conditioning - whereby a previously na&#239;ve odor is learned to be associated with electric shock punishment - at the same time as the representation of this odor (and other untrained odors) is observed in the brain via two-photon microscopy. Our lab has previously reported the generation of synaptically localized calcium sensors, which enables one to confine the fluorescent calcium signals to pre- or postsynaptic compartments. Two-photon microscopy provides a way to spatially resolve fine structures. We exemplify this by focusing on neurons integrating information from the mushroom body, a higher-order center of the insect brain. Overall, this protocol provides a method to examine the synaptic connections between neurons whose activity is modulated as a result of olfactory learning.

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Here we present a protocol with which pre- and/or postsynaptic calcium can be visualized in the context of Drosophila learning and memory. In vivo calcium imaging using synaptically localized calcium sensors is combined with a classical olfactory conditioning paradigm such that the synaptic plasticity underlying this type of associative learning may be determined.

在Vivo光学钙成像学习诱导突触可塑性在果蝇黑色素增生

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. ...

Stimulating and Analyzing Adult Neurogenesis in the Drosophila Central Brain

The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying neurogenesis in response to disease or injury are not well understood. However, understanding these mechanisms is crucial for developing neural regenerative therapies. Drosophila melanogaster is a leading model for studies of neural development but historically has not been exploited to investigate adult brain regeneration. This is primarily because the adult brain exhibits very low mitotic activity. Nonetheless, penetrating traumatic brain injury (PTBI) to the adult Drosophila central brain triggers the generation of new neurons and new glia. The powerful genetic tools available in Drosophila combined with the simple but rigorous injury protocol described here now make adult Drosophila brain a robust model for neural regeneration research. Provided here are detailed instructions for (1) penetrating injuries to the adult central brain and (2) dissection, immunohistochemistry, and imaging post-injury. These protocols yield highly reproducible results and will facilitate additional studies to dissect mechanisms underlying neural regeneration.

Stimulating and Analyzing Adult Neurogenesis in the Drosophila Central Brain

This article provides detailed protocols for inflicting Penetrating Traumatic Brain Injury (PTBI) to adult Drosophila and examining the resulting neurogenesis.

刺激和分析 果蝇 中枢脑中的成人神经发生

The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying neurogenesis in response to disease or injury are not well understood. However, understanding these ...

Visualizing Mushroom Body Neurons in Drosophila Brains via Immunostaining

成績單

Visualizing Mushroom Body Neurons in Drosophila Brains via Immunostaining