加内特传球和罗德尼·威廉斯纪念基金会和La Trobe大学的这项研究提供了资金。

<ol>
	<li>Mauger, S. J., Shivdasani, M. N., Rathbone, G. D., Argent, R. E., Paolini, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+in+vivo+investigation+of+first+spike+latencies+in+the+inferior+colliculus+in+response+to+multichannel+penetrating+auditory+brainstem+implant+stimulation.">An in vivo investigation of first spike latencies in the inferior colliculus in response to multichannel penetrating auditory brainstem implant stimulation.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 7, 036004-036004 (2010).</li><li>Shivdasani, M. N., Mauger, S. J., Argent, R. E., Rathbone, G. D., Paolini, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+colliculus+responses+to+dual-site+intralamina+stimulation+in+the+ventral+cochlear+nucleus.">Inferior colliculus responses to dual-site intralamina stimulation in the ventral cochlear nucleus.</a> J. Comp. Neurol. 518, 4226-4242 (2010).</li><li>Shivdasani, M. N., Mauger, S. J., Rathbone, G. D., Paolini, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+colliculus+responses+to+multichannel+microstimulation+of+the+ventral+cochlear+nucleus:+Implications+for+auditory+brain+stem+implants.">Inferior colliculus responses to multichannel microstimulation of the ventral cochlear nucleus: Implications for auditory brain stem implants.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 99, 1-13 (2007).</li><li>Lenarz, M., Lim, H. H., Patrick, J. F., Anderson, D. J., Lenarz, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+Validation+of+a+Human+Prototype+Auditory+Midbrain+Implant+in+a+Guinea+Pig+Model.">Electrophysiological Validation of a Human Prototype Auditory Midbrain Implant in a Guinea Pig Model.</a> JARO. 7, 383-398 (2006).</li><li>Lim, H. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+Cortical+Responses+to+Electrical+Stimulation+of+the+Inferior+Colliculus:+Implications+for+an+Auditory+Midbrain+Implant.">Auditory Cortical Responses to Electrical Stimulation of the Inferior Colliculus: Implications for an Auditory Midbrain Implant.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 96, 975-988 (2006).</li><li>Otto, K. J., Rousche, P. J., Kipke, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microstimulation+in+auditory+cortex+provides+a+substrate+for+detailed+behaviors.">Microstimulation in auditory cortex provides a substrate for detailed behaviors.</a> Hearing research. 210, 112-117 (2005).</li><li>Gai, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+Tones+in+Reproducible+Noise+Maskers+by+Rabbits+and+Comparison+to+Detection+by+Humans.">Detection of Tones in Reproducible Noise Maskers by Rabbits and Comparison to Detection by Humans.</a> JARO. 8, 522-538 (2007).</li><li>Miller, C. A., Woodruff, K. E., Pfingst, B. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+responses+from+guinea+pigs+with+cochlear+implants.+I.+Electrophysiological+and+psychophysical+measures.">Functional responses from guinea pigs with cochlear implants. I. Electrophysiological and psychophysical measures.</a> Hearing Research. 92, 85-99 (1995).</li><li>Beitel, R. E., Vollmer, M., Snyder, R. L., Schreiner, C. E., Leake, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+and+neurophysiological+thresholds+for+electrical+cochlear+stimulation+in+the+deaf+cat.">Behavioral and neurophysiological thresholds for electrical cochlear stimulation in the deaf cat.</a> Audiology &#38; Neurotology. 5, 31-38 (2000).</li><li>Beitel, R. E., Snyder, R. L., Schreiner, C. E., Raggio, M. W., Leake, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrical+cochlear+stimulation+in+the+deaf+cat:+comparisons+between+psychophysical+and+central+auditory+neuronal+thresholds.">Electrical cochlear stimulation in the deaf cat: comparisons between psychophysical and central auditory neuronal thresholds.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 83, 2145-2162 (2000).</li><li>Vollmer, M., Beitel, R. E., Snyder, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+detection+and+discrimination+in+deaf+cats:+Psychophysical+and+neural+thresholds+for+intracochlear+electrical+signals.">Auditory detection and discrimination in deaf cats: Psychophysical and neural thresholds for intracochlear electrical signals.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 86, 2330-2343 (2001).</li><li>LeDoux, J. E., Cicchetti, P., Xagoraris, A., Romanski, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+lateral+amygdaloid+nucleus:+sensory+interface+of+the+amygdala+in+fear+conditioning.">The lateral amygdaloid nucleus: sensory interface of the amygdala in fear conditioning.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 10, 1062-1069 (1990).</li><li>McCreery, D. B., Yuen, T. G., Agnew, W. F., Bullara, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+characterization+of+the+effects+on+neuronal+excitability+due+to+prolonged+microstimulation+with+chronically+implanted+microelectrodes.">A characterization of the effects on neuronal excitability due to prolonged microstimulation with chronically implanted microelectrodes.</a> IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 44, 931-939 (1997).</li><li>Liu, X., McPhee, G., Seldon, H. L., Clark, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histological+and+physiological+effects+of+the+central+auditory+prosthesis:+surface+versus+penetrating+electrodes.">Histological and physiological effects of the central auditory prosthesis: surface versus penetrating electrodes.</a> Hearing Research. 114, 264-274 (1997).</li><li>Polikov, V. S., Tresco, P. A., Reichert, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Response+of+brain+tissue+to+chronically+implanted+neural+electrodes.">Response of brain tissue to chronically implanted neural electrodes.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 148, 1-18 (2005).</li></ol>

安东尼奥·保利尼是博士Bioengenesis科技控股有限公司是澳大利亚的，塔克戴维斯技术和NeuroNexus探头澳大利亚经销商的代表董事。

这里描述的技术为手段测试了一系列的歧视任务迅速，短期培训时间和大量的自动化，从而最大限度地减少研究人员进行数据处理所需的时间。使用植入心电图，计算心率（HR）在刺激呈现时间的变化，从获得的数据可以实现自动化。心电信号处理中的错误（如缺少一个单一的心拍）可以很容易地确定为它们产生大的变化，一个非常短暂的时期明显心率不合逻辑，这种简单的错误检测，最大限度地减少时间密集型的数据手册审查的要求。 心电图遥测装置植入中描述的技术不断产生很少或根本没有干扰的录音（参见图1和图2）。然而，在率先在纵隔区域的位置相对小的变化可能导致的干扰，从附近的肌肉和特定的呼吸相关的噪音。验证正确的位置，特别是缝合到位线索后，在植入过程中的线索，让领先位置的微调，以减少干扰。 大脑植入到耳蜗核的过程是困难的。通过使用带通滤波器的几个频率范围的噪音，而不是宽带噪声序列介绍，先前已使用3，可迅速审查电极位置的细胞群的反应，而在频率响应方面比少特定的噪音响应。能够迅速找出足够的频率调谐的细胞群访问时正在测试时，电刺激歧视的研究是至关重要的。如果得到足够的频率分布，然后比较不同频率的刺激之间是根本没有可能​​。然而，较长的过程频率幅度响应的映射仍然提供细节方面的调节细胞群的广度和固定在电极前应执行的关键。 在行为训练和测试，列入非刺激（或沉默）之间的试验期间，刺激发病前，允许初始刺激发病的响应进行审查。使用电神经刺激时，刺激发病的响应提供了刺激的简单检测的证据。因此，有没有刺激发病响应，但时引入第二交替刺激的反应时，它可以推断​​，只有后者的刺激可以检测。没有列入这样一个沉默的时间内，将有没有办法确定，前者刺激未检出。 这种行为检测技术的限制是没有脚的冲击交付后neura介绍升的刺激可能会导致发展的特殊性，在条件恐惧，这种恐惧声刺激时表示。也就是说，动物学习，特别是神经刺激的感官效果不接受足部电击。相比之下，提供神经刺激后在脚的冲击可能导致的神经刺激本身，从不同的神经刺激可能有任何声音，像空调的恐惧。不包括神经刺激后，脚休克时，得到的结果肯定神经刺激比使用脚休克，神经刺激后，在前者的情况下，空调的恐惧已普遍从声刺激神经的声音，像提供更有力的证据。然而，发展的特殊性，而不是神经刺激声的风险是存在的。使用带通过滤噪音声刺激，而不是纯音阵阵，其中前可以更好地反映神经刺激的知觉经验，可以减少风险的这种发展的特殊性。然而，这样一个过程，介绍了滤波器的频带宽度的额外的变数，这将影响歧视任务。 额外的限制，如行为测试所需，任何慢性神经植入相关的是，随着时间的推移电极或相关的神经组织的功能变化。刺激可导致神经组织都暂时抑制神经活动13和组织的变化，如细 ​​胞损失14和直接的脑组织反应的电极15。 植入和行为测试所描述的方法提供了一种手段来测试用简短的培训，检测和声学和电刺激的歧视和能力发挥审判频率控制。作为测量电在人力资源变化的技术空调恐惧E可能是适用的，不仅听觉测试，但更普遍地刺激可以提交任何离散时期，并在其中检测感官歧视的需要任何感官检验。

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 名称 </td><td> 公司 </td><td> 模型 </td><td> 评论 </td></tr><tr><td> PowerLab系统</td><td> ADInstruments </td><td> ML880 </td><td>记录的数据收到植入TR40发射</td></tr><tr><td> SmartCtrl控制器卡</td><td> MED公司</td><td>辛-716B </td><td>控制行为的测试，包括足部电击室， </td></tr><tr><td>模块化的行为试验室</td><td> MED公司</td><td> ENV-009 </td><td>试验室尺寸：30.5公分x39.4厘米</td></tr><tr><td>厌恶刺激发生器</td><td> MED公司</td><td> env-410B的</td><td>提供厌恶脚休克的金属栏笼的地板，通过固态扰单位</td></tr><tr><td>可编程衰减器</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> PA5 </td><td>控制的AMPLitude的传递声​​波信号频率，以确保在稳定的振幅</td></tr><tr><td>静电扬声器驱动器</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> ED1 </td><td>驱动静电​​扬声器（EC1的，ES1） </td></tr><tr><td>自由场的静电扬声器</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> ES1 </td><td>声音扬声器使用此行为试验室</td></tr><tr><td>耦合静电扬声器</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> EC1的</td><td>神经植入手术过程中使用此扬声器声音</td></tr><tr><td>刺激基地站</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> RX7 </td><td>控制交付电神经刺激（MS16用于） </td></tr><tr><td>式微</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> MS16 </td><td>提供多声道的电神经刺激</td></tr><tr><td>加工基地站</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> RZ2 </td><td>记录神经活动在大脑植入（PZ2前置） </td></tr><tr><td>前置放大器</td><td> ，TDT </td><td> PZ2-256 </td><td> 256通道高阻抗前置放大器</td></tr><tr><td>遥测设备的接收器</td><td>遥测研究</td><td> TR162 </td><td>从TR40数字信号接收，并转换成模拟输出放大</td></tr><tr><td>植入式心电遥测设备</td><td>遥测研究</td><td> TR40 </td><td>植入发射装置，在2kHz采样</td></tr><tr><td>多功能处理器</td><td>塔克戴维斯技术（TDT）分析</td><td> RX6 </td><td>用于产生听觉刺激</td></tr><tr><td>顶点Castavaria </td><td>顶点牙科</td><td></td><td>牙科丙烯酸类用来固定在电极</td></tr><tr><td> KWIK-SIL胶粘剂， 低粘度</td><td>世界精密仪器</td><td></td><td>硅橡胶涂层电极柄</td></tr><tr><td>多通道电极</td><td> NeuroNexus </td><td> a2x16-10MM 100-500-413 </td><td> 2柄32通道外电极阵列植入。生产准备的刺激铱氧化物涂层电极的用地，已被激活。 </td></tr></tbody></table>

behavioral determination of stimulus pair discrimination of auditory acoustic and electrical stimuli using a classical conditioning and heart-rate approach

急性动物制剂已用于电极设计和技术集成的刺激听觉神经假肢，如听觉脑干植入1-3和听觉中脑植入4,5前瞻性调查研究。虽然急性实验可以给植入的成效初步的洞察力，长期植入和清醒动物测试提供了研究的感觉的心理属性的优势诱导植入设备使用6,7。 如奖励为基础的操作条件6-8，条件避税9-11，或古典恐惧空调12几种技术已被用于提供相关的刺激属性的行为检测确认。技术的选择涉及平衡的各个方面，包括时间效率（通常是基于奖励办法中的穷人），能力测试多个刺激属性同时（空调避税有限），并测量反复刺激（生理措施时，一个潜在的约束）的可靠性。 在这里，古典恐惧制约行为的方法，可以用来同时测试两种检测刺激，两个刺激之间的歧视。心率是用来作为衡量的恐惧反应，从而减少或消除了耗时的视频编码冻结行为或其他类似措施的规定（尽管这些措施可包括提供收敛的证据）。空调使用这些技术，在3个2小时的空调会议，各提供48个刺激试验动物。随后的48个试验测试，然后用来测试提出对每个刺激，检测和测试对每个成员的刺激之间的歧视。 这种行为的方法利用其在听觉假肢研究中。植入心电图遥测设备。随后脑电极植入到声刺激耳蜗核神经反应监测指导，并到地方长期使用固定电极同样所示。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Behavioral Determination of Stimulus Pair Discrimination of Auditory Acoustic and Electrical Stimuli Using a Classical Conditioning and Heart-rate Approach at

Behavioral Determination of Stimulus Pair Discrimination of Auditory Acoustic and Electrical Stimuli Using a Classical Conditioning and Heart-rate Approach

古典恐惧制约行为模式大鼠的听觉假肢研究中的应用介绍。这个范例提供一个机制，确定双方的检测和歧视之间，独特的声学和电刺激采用心率作为测量结果。

使用传统的空调和心率的方法刺激听觉声学和电刺激对歧视行为的测定

Acute animal preparations have been used in research prospectively investigating electrode designs and stimulation techniques for integration into neural ...

behavioral-determination-stimulus-pair-discrimination-auditory

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Electrical Engineering

Neuroscience

Unit 1

Frequency Response

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

14.4K 次观看.  La Trobe University. 古典恐惧制约行为模式大鼠的听觉假肢研究中的应用介绍。这个范例提供一个机制，确定双方的检测和歧视之间，独特的声学和电刺激采用心率作为测量结果。

视频: Behavioral Determination of Stimulus Pair Discrimination of Auditory Acoustic and Electrical Stimuli Using a Classical Conditioning and Heart-rate Approach

Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their communication and orientation skills and for their impressive learning capability1,2. Because the survival of a honeybee colony depends on the exploitation of food sources, forager bees learn and memorize variable flower sites as well as their profitability. Forager bees can be easily trained in natural settings where they forage at a feeding site and learn the related signals such as odor or color. Appetitive associative learning can also be studied under controlled conditions in the laboratory by conditioning the proboscis extension response (PER) of individually harnessed honeybees3,4. This learning paradigm enables the study of the neuronal and molecular mechanisms that underlie learning and memory formation in a simple and highly reliable way5-12. A behavioral pharmacology approach is used to study molecular mechanisms. Drugs are injected systemically to interfere with the function of specific molecules during or after learning and memory formation13-16.
Here we demonstrate how to train harnessed honeybees in PER conditioning and how to apply drugs systemically by injection into the bee flight muscle.

Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees Apis mellifera

We demonstrate how to implement a behavioral pharmacology method in an appetitive olfactory conditioning paradigm in honeybees (Apis mellifera) by systemic application of drugs. This method allows investigation of the mechanisms underlying learning and memory formation in a simple and reliable way.

在蜜蜂的长鼻扩展响应的经典条件反射行为药理学（蜜蜂）

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are well known for their communication and orientation skills and for their impressive learning capability1,2. Because the ...

科研

神经科学

A Lightweight, Headphones-based System for Manipulating Auditory Feedback in Songbirds

Experimental manipulations of sensory feedback during complex behavior have provided valuable insights into the computations underlying motor control and sensorimotor plasticity1. Consistent sensory perturbations result in compensatory changes in motor output, reflecting changes in feedforward motor control that reduce the experienced feedback error. By quantifying how different sensory feedback errors affect human behavior, prior studies have explored how visual signals are used to recalibrate arm movements2,3 and auditory feedback is used to modify speech production4-7. The strength of this approach rests on the ability to mimic naturalistic errors in behavior, allowing the experimenter to observe how experienced errors in production are used to recalibrate motor output.
Songbirds provide an excellent animal model for investigating the neural basis of sensorimotor control and plasticity8,9. The songbird brain provides a well-defined circuit in which the areas necessary for song learning are spatially separated from those required for song production, and neural recording and lesion studies have made significant advances in understanding how different brain areas contribute to vocal behavior9-12. However, the lack of a naturalistic error-correction paradigm - in which a known acoustic parameter is perturbed by the experimenter and then corrected by the songbird - has made it difficult to understand the computations underlying vocal learning or how different elements of the neural circuit contribute to the correction of vocal errors13.
The technique described here gives the experimenter precise control over auditory feedback errors in singing birds, allowing the introduction of arbitrary sensory errors that can be used to drive vocal learning. Online sound-processing equipment is used to introduce a known perturbation to the acoustics of song, and a miniaturized headphones apparatus is used to replace a songbird's natural auditory feedback with the perturbed signal in real time. We have used this paradigm to perturb the fundamental frequency (pitch) of auditory feedback in adult songbirds, providing the first demonstration that adult birds maintain vocal performance using error correction14. The present protocol can be used to implement a wide range of sensory feedback perturbations (including but not limited to pitch shifts) to investigate the computational and neurophysiological basis of vocal learning.

We describe the design and assembly of miniaturized headphones suitable for replacing a songbird&#x2019;s natural auditory feedback with a manipulated acoustic signal. Online sound processing hardware is used to manipulate song output, introduce real-time errors in auditory feedback via the headphones, and drive vocal motor learning.

一个轻量级的，耳机为基础的系统操作鸣禽听觉反馈

Experimental manipulations of sensory feedback during complex behavior have provided valuable insights into the computations underlying motor control and ...

Functional Imaging of Auditory Cortex in Adult Cats using High-field fMRI

Current knowledge of sensory processing in the mammalian auditory system is mainly derived from electrophysiological studies in a variety of animal models, including monkeys, ferrets, bats, rodents, and cats. In order to draw suitable parallels between human and animal models of auditory function, it is important to establish a bridge between human functional imaging studies and animal electrophysiological studies. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an established, minimally invasive method of measuring broad patterns of hemodynamic activity across different regions of the cerebral cortex. This technique is widely used to probe sensory function in the human brain, is a useful tool in linking studies of auditory processing in both humans and animals and has been successfully used to investigate auditory function in monkeys and rodents. The following protocol describes an experimental procedure for investigating auditory function in anesthetized adult cats by measuring stimulus-evoked hemodynamic changes in auditory cortex using fMRI. This method facilitates comparison of the hemodynamic responses across different models of auditory function thus leading to a better understanding of species-independent features of the mammalian auditory cortex.

Functional studies of the auditory system in mammals have traditionally been conducted using spatially-focused techniques such as electrophysiological recordings. The following protocol describes a method of visualizing large-scale patterns of evoked hemodynamic activity in the cat auditory cortex using functional magnetic resonance imaging.

听觉皮层在成年猫用高场磁共振成像功能成像

Current knowledge of sensory processing in the mammalian auditory system is mainly derived from electrophysiological studies in a variety of animal ...

Simultaneous Detection of c-Fos Activation from Mesolimbic and Mesocortical Dopamine Reward Sites Following Naive Sugar and Fat Ingestion in Rats

This study uses cellular c-fos activation to assess effects of novel ingestion of fat and sugar on brain dopamine (DA) pathways in rats. Intakes of sugars and fats are mediated by their innate attractions as well as learned preferences. Brain dopamine, especially meso-limbic and meso-cortical projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), has been implicated in both of these unlearned and learned responses. The concept of distributed brain networks, wherein several sites and transmitter/peptide systems interact, has been proposed to mediate palatable food intake, but there is limited evidence empirically demonstrating such actions. Thus, sugar intake elicits DA release and increases c-fos-like immunoreactivity (FLI) from individual VTA DA projection zones including the nucleus accumbens (NAC), amygdala (AMY) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) as well as the dorsal striatum. Further, central administration of selective DA receptor antagonists into these sites differentially reduce acquisition and expression of conditioned flavor preferences elicited by sugars or fats. One approach by which to determine whether these sites interacted as a distributed brain network in response to sugar or fat intake would be to simultaneous evaluate whether the VTA and its major mesotelencephalic DA projection zones (prelimbic and infralimbic mPFC, core and shell of the NAc, basolateral and central-cortico-medial AMY) as well as the dorsal striatum would display coordinated and simultaneous FLI activation after oral, unconditioned intake of corn oil (3.5%), glucose (8%), fructose (8%) and saccharin (0.2%) solutions. This approach is a successful first step in identifying the feasibility of using cellular c-fos activation simultaneously across relevant brain sites to study reward-related learning in ingestion of palatable food in rodents.

The goal of this study is to identify reward-related distributed brain networks by delineating a reliable immunohistological technique using cellular c-fos activation to measure simultaneous changes in dopamine pathways and terminal sites after novel ingestion of fat and sugar in rats.

从脑边缘和Mesocortical多巴胺奖赏网站继朴素的糖和脂肪摄入大鼠c-fos激活的同时检测

This study uses cellular c-fos activation to assess effects of novel ingestion of fat and sugar on brain dopamine (DA) pathways in rats. Intakes of sugars ...

High Resolution Quantitative Synaptic Proteome Profiling of Mouse Brain Regions After Auditory Discrimination Learning

The molecular synaptic mechanisms underlying auditory learning and memory remain largely unknown. Here, the workflow of a proteomic study on auditory discrimination learning in mice is described. In this learning paradigm, mice are trained in a shuttle box Go/NoGo-task to discriminate between rising and falling frequency-modulated tones in order to avoid a mild electric foot-shock. The protocol involves the enrichment of synaptosomes from four brain areas, namely the auditory cortex, frontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum, at different stages of training. Synaptic protein expression patterns obtained from trained mice are compared to na&#239;ve controls using a proteomic approach. To achieve sufficient analytical depth, samples are fractionated in three different ways prior to mass spectrometry, namely 1D SDS-PAGE/in-gel digestion, in-solution digestion and phospho-peptide enrichment. 
High-resolution proteomic analysis on a mass spectrometer and label-free quantification are used to examine synaptic protein profiles in phospho-peptide-depleted and phospho-peptide-enriched fractions of synaptosomal protein samples. A commercial software package is utilized to reveal proteins and phospho-peptides with significantly regulated relative synaptic abundance levels (trained/na&#239;ve controls). Common and differential regulation modes for the synaptic proteome in the investigated brain regions of mice after training were observed. Subsequently, meta-analyses utilizing several databases are employed to identify underlying cellular functions and biological pathways.

The identification of molecules and pathways controlling synaptic plasticity and memory is still a major challenge in neuroscience. Here, a workflow is described addressing the relative quantification of synaptic proteins supposedly involved in the molecular reorganization of synapses during learning and memory consolidation in an auditory learning paradigm.

鼠脑区的高分辨率定量突触蛋白质双向听觉辨别学习后

The molecular synaptic mechanisms underlying auditory learning and memory remain largely unknown. Here, the workflow of a proteomic study on auditory ...

The Use of Trace Eyeblink Classical Conditioning to Assess Hippocampal Dysfunction in a Rat Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Neonatal rats were administered a relatively high concentration of ethyl alcohol (11.9% v/v) during postnatal days 4-9, a time when the fetal brain undergoes rapid organizational change and is similar to accelerated brain changes that occur during the third trimester in humans. This model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) produces severe brain damage, mimicking the amount and pattern of binge-drinking that occurs in some pregnant alcoholic mothers. We describe the use of trace eyeblink classical conditioning (ECC), a higher-order variant of associative learning, to assess long-term hippocampal dysfunction that is typically seen in alcohol-exposed adult offspring. At 90 days of age, rodents were surgically prepared with recording and stimulating electrodes, which measured electromyographic (EMG) blink activity from the left eyelid muscle and delivered mild shock posterior to the left eye, respectively. After a 5 day recovery period, they underwent 6 sessions of trace ECC to determine associative learning differences between alcohol-exposed and control rats. Trace ECC is one of many possible ECC procedures that can be easily modified using the same equipment and software, so that different neural systems can be assessed. ECC procedures in general, can be used as diagnostic tools for detecting neural pathology in different brain systems and different conditions that insult the brain.

Trace eyeblink classical conditioning (ECC) was used to assess hippocampal-dependent associative learning in adult rats that were administered a high concentration (11.9% v/v) of alcohol during early neonatal brain development. In general, ECC procedures are sound diagnostic tools for detecting brain dysfunction across many psychological and biomedical settings.

使用的跟踪经典条件反射，评估胎儿酒精谱系障碍大鼠模型海马功能障碍

Neonatal rats were administered a relatively high concentration of ethyl alcohol (11.9% v/v) during postnatal days 4-9, a time when the fetal brain ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

果蝇调理作为学习和记忆的措施

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...

Quantifying Infra-slow Dynamics of Spectral Power and Heart Rate in Sleeping Mice

Three vigilance states dominate mammalian life: wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep, and REM sleep. As more neural correlates of behavior are identified in freely moving animals, this three-fold subdivision becomes too simplistic. During wakefulness, ensembles of global and local cortical activities, together with peripheral parameters such as pupillary diameter and sympathovagal balance, define various degrees of arousal. It remains unclear the extent to which sleep also forms a continuum of brain states-within which the degree of resilience to sensory stimuli and arousability, and perhaps other sleep functions, vary gradually-and how peripheral physiological states co-vary. Research advancing the methods to monitor multiple parameters during sleep, as well as attributing to constellations of these functional attributes, is central to refining our understanding of sleep as a multifunctional process during which many beneficial effects must be executed. Identifying novel parameters characterizing sleep states will open opportunities for novel diagnostic avenues in sleep disorders.
We present a procedure to describe dynamic variations of mouse non-REM sleep states via the combined monitoring and analysis of electroencephalogram (EEG)/electrocorticogram (ECoG), electromyogram (EMG), and electrocardiogram (ECG) signals using standard polysomnographic recording techniques. Using this approach, we found that mouse non-REM sleep is organized into cycles of coordinated neural and cardiac oscillations that generate successive 25-s intervals of high and low fragility to external stimuli. Therefore, central and autonomic nervous systems are coordinated to form behaviorally distinct sleep states during consolidated non-REM sleep. We present surgical manipulations for polysomnographic (i.e., EEG/EMG combined with ECG) monitoring to track these cycles in the freely sleeping mouse, the analysis to quantify their dynamics, and the acoustic stimulation protocols to assess their role in the likelihood of waking up. Our approach has already been extended to human sleep and promises to unravel common organizing principles of non-REM sleep states in mammals.

Here, we present experimental and analytical procedures to describe the temporal dynamics of the neural and cardiac variables of non-REM sleep in mice, which modulate sleep responsiveness to acoustic stimuli.

量化睡眠小鼠的光谱功率和心率的慢速动力学

Three vigilance states dominate mammalian life: wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep, and REM sleep. As more neural correlates of behavior ...

Desensitization and Recovery of Crayfish Photoreceptors Upon Delivery of a Light Stimulus

A method to study desensitization and recovery of crayfish photoreceptors is presented. We performed intracellular electrical recordings of photoreceptor cells in isolated eyestalks using the discontinuous single electrode-switched voltage-clamp configuration. First, with a razor blade we made an opening in the dorsal cornea to get access to the retina. Thereafter, we inserted a glass electrode through the opening, and penetrated a cell as reported by the recording of a negative potential. Membrane potential was clamped at the photoreceptor's resting potential and a light-pulse was applied to activate currents. Finally, the two light-flash protocol was employed to measure current desensitization and recovery. The first light-flash triggers, after a lag period, the transduction ionic current, which after reaching a peak amplitude decays towards a desensitized state; the second flash, applied at varying time intervals, assesses the state of the light-activated conductance. To characterize the light-elicited current, three parameters were measured: 1) latency (the time elapsed between light flash delivery and the moment in which current achieves 10% of its maximum value); 2) peak current; and 3) desensitization time constant (exponential time constant of the current decay phase). All parameters are affected by the first pulse.
To quantify recovery from desensitization, the ratio p2/p1 was employed versus time between pulses. p1 is the peak current evoked by the first light-pulse, and p2 is the peak current evoked by the second pulse. These data were fitted to a sum of exponential functions. Finally, these measurements were carried out as function of circadian time.

A protocol for the study of desensitization and sensitivity recovery of crayfish photoreceptors as a function of circadian time is presented.

光刺激后小龙虾光受体的脱敏和回收

A method to study desensitization and recovery of crayfish photoreceptors is presented. We performed intracellular electrical recordings of photoreceptor ...

An Objective and Reproducible Test of Olfactory Learning and Discrimination in Mice

Olfaction is the predominant sensory modality in mice and influences many important behaviors, including foraging, predator detection, mating, and parenting. Importantly, mice can be trained to associate novel odors with specific behavioral responses to provide insight into olfactory circuit function. This protocol details the procedure for training mice on a Go/No-Go operant learning task. In this approach, mice are trained on hundreds of automated trials daily for 2&#8211;4 weeks and can then be tested on novel Go/No-Go odor pairs to assess olfactory discrimination, or be used for studies on how odor learning alters the structure or function of the olfactory circuit. Additionally, the mouse olfactory bulb (OB) features ongoing integration of adult-born neurons. Interestingly, olfactory learning increases both the survival and synaptic connections of these adult-born neurons. Therefore, this protocol can be combined with other biochemical, electrophysiological, and imaging techniques to study learning and activity-dependent factors that mediate neuronal survival and plasticity.

Here, we train mice on an associative learning task to test odor discrimination. This protocol also allows for studies on learning-induced structural changes in the brain.