作者要承认荷兰科学研究组织（NWO）的慷慨支持，发布本稿件为开放存取文件。

1。实验装置<ol><li>为每个居民一个笼子里，建筑面积约半平方米。进攻侵略行为是一种高活性的形式，充分表达，需要足够的空间。笼子应该消毒的材料制成的。 </li><li>每个居民楼与女性至少一个星期的实验开始前，这将有利于发展的属地。与此同时，这将防止社会隔离，这是众所周知的是社会性的动物的压力，并可能导致削减福利和社会行为的异常形式。 </li><li>使用同伴女性输卵管结扎消毒的。通过这种方式，女性激素保持完好，并定期接受而成为孕妇和产妇侵略。 </li></ol> 2。程序<ol><li>居民楼的男性和伴侣的女性居民一起在测试前至少一个星期笼。 </li><li>不要清洗床上用品的笼子或以后的测试之前，最初的一周，因为属地强烈基于嗅觉的存在。建立其自己的领土，并为驻地入侵者知道这是在家里笼子里的居民，这些线索都是重要的。请注意到，这从一般动物保健程序可能需要特殊的偏差当局的许可。 </li><li>取出伴侣的女性住宅笼一小时前的测试。 </li><li>介绍一个陌生的男性居民在测试开始进入家庭笼。优选地，应该是入侵者略小于驻地，不应该被使用在早前的相互作用具有相同的居民。 </li><li>驻地，优选使用光敏感的摄像机记录的行为。 </li><li>通常是一个测试持续时间为10分钟足以表达完整的进攻行为剧目。标准化的目的，可以考虑继续录制10分钟后的第一次进攻。 </li><li>在测试完成后，从笼子里删除入侵者男性团聚居民男性伴侣的女性。 </li><li>虽然可能会发生在一天中的任何时候都侵略，这是最好的测试只能在黑暗的阶段，老鼠的主要活动阶段。 </li><li>可以进行测试，每天一次或两次。攻击行为往往跨越的第一对夫妇的测试，但增加后一般稳定三到四个测试。 </li></ol> 3。进攻的攻击行为<ol><li>原则上，任何应变的影响，可以使用为居民。然而，菌株其攻击行为的绝对水平可能差别很大。此外，有可能是一个相当大的个体内变异菌株。 </li><li>标准化入侵者S作为尽可能在应变，年龄和体重。使用大鼠的非侵略性的应变小幅低体重比男性居民。 </li><li>确定居民男性下列行为参数的持续时间和频率: <ol class="lroman"><li>攻击延迟:入侵者引进和第一再胜攻击之间的时间</li><li>走向</li><li>社会的探索</li><li> ANO-生殖器嗅探</li><li>饲养</li><li>横向威胁</li><li>直立的姿势</li><li>克林奇攻击</li><li>抑</li><li>追</li><li>非社会的探索</li><li>休息或闲置</li></ol></li><li>分析<ol class="lroman"><li>行为记录的参数应支付100％的观测时间。这有利于一个公正的解释结果， 即一个行为上升时，另一个下去。 </li><li>数据还原反应可以通过以下方式获得不同的行为的类别计算分数，特别是: <ol><li>直立，总进攻得分:横向的威胁总和，成交下降，保持和追逐</li><li>社会勘探得分:社会和探索，肛门 - 生殖器嗅探和社会新郎</li></ol></li><li>数据可以被表示为总观测时间的百分比</li></ol></li></ol> 4。暴力<ol><li>按照协议，根据第2条解释</li><li>行为测试和标准: <ol class="lroman"><li>确定男性居民的攻击延迟。在很短的延迟是一个暴力的第一项指标。 </li><li>居民男性的频率之间的横向威胁和成交的比例计算。 A比值低于1表明，动物的攻击withoUT任何介绍行为和预警，这是一个可靠的指标，暴力（失控）。 </li><li>咬住目标网站: <ol><li>叮咬攻击脆弱的身体部位，如咽喉，腹部和爪子是暴力的标志。 </li><li>咬伤针对对手的鼻尖，表示演员的防守行为。 </li></ol></li><li>输出上下文试验: <ol><li>作为入侵者使用一个陌生的女性。一个女的攻击是一个暴力的迹象。 </li><li>使用麻醉雄性入侵者。麻醉雄性的攻击是一个暴力的迹象。 </li><li>居民在一个新的环境中测试的侵略行为。没有侵略的变化相比，回家笼是暴力的标志。本试验的终点是第一次发作或10分钟时，居民不攻击。 </li></ol></li></ol></li></ol> 5。防卫行为<ol><li>受过良好的训练，非常积极的，非暴力的男性居民中选择一个号码</li><li>按照协议，根据第2条解释</li><li>确定在入侵者下列行为参数（除了至3c）的持续时间和频率: <ol class="lroman"><li>提交延迟</li><li>奴隶的姿势</li><li>移开</li><li>飞行</li><li>防守直立的姿势</li><li>冻结</li><li>非社会的探索</li><li>饲养</li></ol></li><li>分析<ol class="lroman"><li>数据可以通过减少计算防御得分，这是大量的时间花费在飞行的总和，防守直立的姿势，提交并冻结</li></ol></li></ol> 6。社会压力<ol><li>遵循根据第5条协议解释</li><li>对于间歇性的社会压力，重复的协议</li><li>对于慢性的社会压力，保持入侵者在居民的笼子中，但驻地由金属丝网分开</li><li>继续步骤b和/或c只要科学问题和假设需要。 </li></ol>

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作者宣称，他们有没有竞争经济利益。

可用于居民入侵者范式，侵略进攻，防守行为，暴力和社会应激大鼠和其他啮齿动物以及一些小的修改，研究。学习侵略时，主要可用于所有大鼠品系。然而，应变不是同样适合。根据实验的确切目的，动物的一些具体特征，应予以考虑。重要的是要注意有进攻侵略的水平和强度为居民的大应变的差异。 图1显示了进攻的侵略，原本野性的大鼠株（ 图1a）的频率分布，在一个标准的实验室Wistar种（ 图1b）。两个菌株有很大的不同的动物的数量，将显示在所有的攻击行为。此外，有一个很大的差异，在绝对规模的进攻。野性大鼠STRA范围从零到80％以上的罪行在我们的标准测试，而10分钟的Wistar株有最多25％的进攻，后者16株高度侵袭性的表型是不存在的。 当居民入侵者范式是用来研究在入侵者的防御行为和社会的压力，人们需要这些居民高度侵袭性​​表型。毕竟，居民可靠地击败任何入侵者进入他的领地。当然，最积极的人应该选择应该认识到，即使在一个非常积极的应变，而不是所有的个人将适用于这一目的。真应使用至少4个月的10岁的成年男性，可考虑使用以前的男性饲养员。推荐给驻地男性入侵者一些进一步的经验与实际的社会压力实验开始前的那段日子。不限菌株可以用作入侵者。然而，为了保证清除赢得居民和击败入侵者，我们建议使用入侵者稍低的体重比男性居民。因为嗅觉是非常重要的社会沟通和属地，清洁笼子里的居民，在测试前将是一个严重的混杂因素。 它被推荐到录像带，并在测试过程中，记录完整的实验动物行为的剧目。这允许一个公正的分析结果， 即一个行为上升时，另一种是可能会走。例如， 图3中所示的结果表明，在药物治疗后的罪行减少伴随着社会的探索，而不是由不动的增加。这提供的证据表明，药物诱发犯罪减少是不是由于某种闲置的镇静或电机的效果。总进攻得分是侵略的强度指数和第一阿塔延迟ck和攻击动物的数量可用于作为衡量攻击22的准备。 对于社会压力实验中，一个人应该有一个明确的标准，社会的失败。当入侵者采用一个顺从的姿势（见上文），并保持这个姿势，甚至当居民移开，这是一个可靠的标准，社会的失败。请注意，入侵者的住房条件在社会压力的研究是非常重要的。首先，社会压力不应给药非应激控制被安置在同一个房间。控制动物目睹（社会）在其他人的压力可能会遇到重大的压力，自己7,21。其次，社会压力的后果是对社会的缓冲效果。集团安置，社会强调的动物不显示在社会强调与社会隔绝的动物，后来23看到相同的长期后果。 Ť阿肯一起，居民的入侵者模式允许攻击行为的原因和后果的研究。这是一个具有很高的脸和建构效度，不仅涵盖了自适应社会行为的生物学模型，但可以用来学习适应不良的问题，以及在暴力和社会的压力病理方面。

攻击行为属于自然的行为，几乎所有的动物物种剧目。从生物学的角度来看，攻击行为可以被认为是一个功能很强的社会沟通的形式，旨在有效控制的社会环境。它的特点是由一组物种典型的行为，与对手进行密切的相互作用。有潜在危害，不仅对受害者，但侵略者公然侵略和肢体冲突。因此，在整个动物王国中，机制已经被开发，以尽量减少和控制人身攻击，以防止其潜在的不良后果。这样的机制包括，例如，威胁往往预测的行为，从而防止物理攻击。其他机制，以保持控制的侵略是禁忌，仪式化，提交，和解和绥靖。持有进攻侵略，这是一个特别主动试图达到的背部和颈部的非脆弱的目标，在消费的咄咄逼人的攻势叮咬之前，罪犯和一系列的介绍，经常威胁，行为显示形式的攻击行为特征。尽管这种的高度自适应控制机制，功能侵略变成暴力，从而可以被定义为有害形式的进攻侵略，控制和断章取义的例子存在，它是进攻性的行为，已不再是一种病态的形式受抑制控制机制，有没有添加剂功能价值正常的攻击行为在社会交往8。暴力，从而定量和定性不同正常自适应冒犯。这可能包括叮咬目标的攻击脆弱的身体部位，如咽喉，腹部和爪子通常都是关闭的限制5，13，20，24。 防守侵略我的形式进行的攻击行为响应另一个人的攻击。这是明显不同的罪行，其行为表达和抑制控制5方面。需要注意的是防守行为的极端形式可以有暴力的特点。 大部分的潜伏期侵略研究进行领土男性居民大鼠或小鼠同种面对入侵者。这种所谓的居民入侵者范式允许双方进攻的侵略和防御行为啮齿类实验动物在一个半天然实验室设置的自发和自然的表达。通过记录在这些冲突的频率，持续时间，延迟时间和顺序模式的所有观测到的行为的行为和在战斗中的姿势，详细的定量的图片攻势（行为谱）（居民）和防御（入侵者）侵略。有关的各种behavi的详尽说明ORS看到3，12，18。范式是基于对成年雄性大鼠的事实，将建立一个领土时给予足够的生存空间。属地增强女性的存在和/或性经验1。驻地作为属地的结果，将攻击陌生男子闯入其家笼。因此，进攻的侵略，可以研究使用居民作为实验动物。要确定暴力性质的侵略一个可以评估的罪行是否是通过使用不同类型的女性或男性麻醉或一种新的环境，如入侵者的上下文和抑制控制。需要一个详细的定量分析的进攻行为剧目透露到什么程度观察侵略失控。 入侵者在驻地入侵者范式将显示在回应居民的进攻攻击的防御行为。范式的Therefore还允许一个研究作为实验动物使用入侵者的防御行为和社会压力。慢性社会压力的一种形式，可以创建重复使用实验动物为入侵者，或安置在笼子里（境）外的居民，由金属丝网4分离。 如同任何一种应激范式，居民入侵者范式是不是免费的伦理问题。因此，我们想提出一些伦理方面的考虑。侵略，暴力和社会的压力，是我们人类社会的严重问题。世界卫生组织的一份报告显示，人与人之间的暴力，不仅是全世界死亡的一个主要来源侵略19幸存的受害者的严重的健康问题，它也是一个主要来源。因此，有必要了解这些行为在其相关的因果机制和调制因素。动物模型是必不可少获得前实验支持的因果性的生理和环境因素。从生物学的角度来看，侵略是一种天然，具有生物功能的社会行为的形式，旨在建立领土，社会资源优势和国防。驻地入侵者范式带来了这种自然形成的行为，到实验室环境中，允许侵略者和受害者双方的对照研究。道德关注的一个问题是到什么程度的动物的福利受到损害时，接触到这种范式的问题。几项研究表明，从事进攻性攻击行为，并赢得了战斗是非常有益的和/或增强11。从这个角度来看，有没有居民的苦难。然而，积极的互动需要一个对手。防守行为，并提交属于自然的剧目，以应付与优势。失败和征服触发自适应行为和physiologiCal的响应，旨在通过在一个社会群体中处于从属地位。从这个角度来看，最初的反应过程中的失败将导致适应良好的动物，这并不一定遭受15。只有反复接触可能导致战败后的主导和社会隔离的条件，超越动物的适应能力。这使得适合作为范式应力病理动物模型具有很高的生态效度17。虽然社会的失败的压力，主要是社会心理性质，物理伤害，并可能发生药害。在一个正常的（非暴力）的社会互动，这个身体的伤害是有限的。咬主要发生在背部和侧面的对手的身体部位与皮肤厚韧5，6。事实上，简短的皮肤咬咬，留下小印记门牙。这种类型的皮肤损伤并不需要任何兽医的照顾。然而，生物功能侵略SION可能更改为一种病态的，暴力的形式控制和断章取义的侵略。在这些情况下，可能会发生更严重的创伤，特别是在脆弱的体区（腹部，咽喉和爪子）14。为了有临床相关性，暴力攻击行为的实验模型系统需要是有效的，这方面的发展带来了中央的这种类型的侵略的研究，​​即损害和伤害的道德困境。两个反补贴原则研究:表面效度实现的行为时，是潜在的有害的和有害的，但在同一时间，每个伦理研究指导原则强调减少和避免受到伤害或受伤的风险。每个研究的问题和协议需要探讨多大的危害和伤害是必要的，还是可以接受的，科学有效的信息，可以翻译成关注的公共卫生体系。当暴力研究的经验的主要目的iment，它是不言自明的，应采取非常谨慎的受害者伤口护理，甚至安乐死。脆弱的身体部位的存在，严重伤人，应该是人道主义端点入侵者。当社会强调的是实验的主要目的，应停止互动驻地时，有迹象表明在脆弱的身体部位的暴力行为造成严重咬伤的伤口。毕竟，社会心理性质的应力范式不应该是混合的压力，严重的人身伤害。当居民表明这些暴力的迹象，他们应该从实验中排除。

the resident-intruder paradigm: a standardized test for aggression, violence and social stress

此视频刊物详细解释的驻地入侵者范式的大鼠实验的协议。这个测试是一个标准化的方法来衡量在一个半自然的环境的进攻的侵略和防御行为。最重要的行为元素体现在居民和入侵者进行视频和使用艺术图纸所示。居民入侵者使用急性和慢性的社会压力实验范式的解释。最后，提出一些简单的测试和标准区分更加暴力和病理形式的侵略。

菌株间和株内在进攻侵略性行为的水平有相当大的变化。这表现在图1显示了在实验室中培育出的频率分布侵略进攻得分，但原本野性的大鼠株（野生型菌株格罗宁根（WTG））（ 图1a）和实验室大鼠（只Wistar一种较为常见的菌株， 图1b）。在风力发电机应变，约三分之一的动物是非常积极的，而另外三分之一是没有或非常低的侵略性。这是相反的Wistar系高度侵袭性的表型，其中不存在，且约50％的动物可以被认为是低或无侵略性16的频数分布。 图2显示了不同的行为类别分布在驻地入侵者范式的风力发电机应变为居民（FIGURE 2a）和Wistar大鼠作为入侵者（ 图2b）。显示的是平均组成的进攻行为在风力发电机居民大鼠和平均组成的各种行为所花费的时间相对而言的Wistar入侵者的防御行为。 行为药理学驻地入侵者范式，在使用图3显示了一个例子。选择性5 - 羟色胺1A受体激动剂Alnespirone的诱导剂量依赖性降低进攻的侵略，这是伴随着社会探索的剂量依赖性增加。非社会的勘探和不活动的任何显着的影响的情况下，该化合物的行为的影响的特定的进攻侵略9支持这样的观点，。 在一些个人进攻侵略可能升级成暴力形式的侵略。高层次的侵略之间的区别和暴力， 如图4所示。尽管暴力形式的侵略的事实，那就是在进攻得分差异无统计学意义，特点是攻击延迟很短，攻击麻醉男性或女性，严重伤人和非常低威胁的进攻比8。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig1.jpg" alt="图1" fo:content-width="3in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig1highres.jpg"/> 图1。在实验室中培育出个人进攻侵略水平的频率分布，但原本野性的大鼠株（A -顶面板）在Wistar系雄性大鼠（B -底部面板）16。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig2.jpg" alt="图2" fo:content-width="3in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig2highres.jpg"/> 图2。乙风力发电机组的大鼠（A）（B）在一个10分钟的居民入侵者测试和Wistar大鼠入侵者的居民男性ehavioral档案。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig3.jpg" alt="图3" fo:content-width="4.5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig3highres.jpg"/> 图3。进攻侵略剂量依赖性降低5-HT1A激动剂Alnespirone 9。 <a href="http://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">点击这里查看大图</a> 。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig4.jpg" alt="图4" fo:content-width="2.75in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/4367/4367fig4highres.jpg"/> 图4。极富攻击性的男性之间的比较和暴力男性8。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress at JoVE.com

The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress

该视频显示，大鼠的居民入侵者范式。这个测试是一个标准化的方法来衡量进攻侵略，防守一个半自然的环境行为和暴力。社会压力实验范式的使用说明。

驻地入侵者范式:一种标准化考试的侵略，暴力和社会压力

This video publication explains in detail the experimental protocol of the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. This test is a standardized method to ...

the-resident-intruder-paradigm-standardized-test-for-aggression

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

70.2K 次观看.  University Groningen. 该视频显示，大鼠的居民入侵者范式。这个测试是一个标准化的方法来衡量进攻侵略，防守一个半自然的环境行为和暴力。社会压力实验范式的使用说明。

视频: The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress

Using Chronic Social Stress to Model Postpartum Depression in Lactating Rodents

Exposure to chronic stress is a reliable predictor of depressive disorders, and social stress is a common ethologically relevant stressor in both animals and humans. However, many animal models of depression were developed in males and are not applicable or effective in studies of postpartum females. Recent studies have reported significant effects of chronic social stress during lactation, an ethologically relevant and effective stressor, on maternal behavior, growth, and behavioral neuroendocrinology. This manuscript will describe this chronic social stress paradigm using repeated exposure of a lactating dam to a novel male intruder, and the assessment of the behavioral, physiological, and neuroendocrine effects of this model. Chronic social stress (CSS) is a valuable model for studying the effects of stress on the behavior and physiology of the dam as well as her offspring and future generations. The exposure of pups to CSS can also be used as an early life stress that has long term effects on behavior, physiology, and neuroendocrinology.

This article describes the use of chronic resident intruder social stress as an ethologically relevant paradigm to model postpartum depression and anxiety in lactating rodents.

哺乳期鼠害使用慢性社会压力型号产后抑郁症

Exposure to chronic stress is a reliable predictor of depressive disorders, and social stress is a common ethologically relevant stressor in both animals ...

科研

行为学

A Mouse Model of Subchronic and Mild Social Defeat Stress for Understanding Stress-induced Behavioral and Physiological Deficits

Stressful life events often increase the incidence of depression in humans. To study the mechanisms of depression, the development of animal models of depression is essential. Because there are several types of depression, various animal models are needed for a deeper understanding of the disorder. Previously, a mouse model of subchronic and mild social defeat stress (sCSDS) using a modified chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) paradigm was established. In the paradigm, to reduce physical injuries from aggressors, the duration of physical contact between the aggressor and a subordinate was reduced compared to in the original CSDS paradigm. sCSDS mice showed increased body weight gain, food intake, and water intake during the stress period, and their social behaviors were suppressed after the stress period. In terms of the face validity of the stress-induced overeating and overdrinking following the increased body weight gain, the sCSDS mice may show some features related to atypical depression in humans. Thus, a mouse model of sCSDS may be useful for studying the pathogenic mechanisms underlying depression. This protocol will help establish the sCSDS mouse model, especially for studying the mechanisms underlying stress-induced weight gain and polydipsia- and hyperphagia-like symptoms.

Here, methods for developing a mouse model of subchronic and mild social defeat stress are described and used to investigate the pathogenic features of depression including hyperphagia- and polydipsia-like symptoms following increased body weight.

亚慢性和温和的社会失败应激的小鼠模型理解应激诱导行为和生理赤字

Stressful life events often increase the incidence of depression in humans. To study the mechanisms of depression, the development of animal models of ...

The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress. In order to study the interplay between these variables, this protocol describes two effective experimental manipulations of social relationships and supportive behavior in the laboratory. In the present article, these two manipulations are implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)&#8212;a standard stress induction paradigm in which participants are subjected to a simulated job interview. More precisely, we propose (a) a manipulation of the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST by making a shared social identity salient and (b) a manipulation of the behavior of the TSST-selection committee, which acts either supportively or unsupportively. These two experimental manipulations are designed in a modular fashion and can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. Moreover, these two manipulations can also be integrated into other stress protocols and into other standardized social interactions such as trust games, negotiation tasks, or other group tasks.

Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test).

应力的社会问题:社会支持和社会认同的特里尔社会的实验操作压力测试

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations ...

Holistic Facial Composite Creation and Subsequent Video Line-up Eyewitness Identification Paradigm

The paradigm detailed in this manuscript describes an applied experimental method based on real police investigations during which an eyewitness or victim to a crime may create from memory a holistic facial composite of the culprit with the assistance of a police operator. The aim is that the composite is recognized by someone who believes that they know the culprit. For this paradigm, participants view a culprit actor on video and following a delay, participant-witnesses construct a holistic system facial composite. Controls do not construct a composite. From a series of arrays of computer-generated, but realistic faces, the holistic system construction method primarily requires participant-witnesses to select the facial images most closely meeting their memory of the culprit. Variation between faces in successive arrays is reduced until ideally the final image possesses a close likeness to the culprit. Participant-witness directed tools can also alter facial features, configurations between features and holistic properties (e.g., age, distinctiveness, skin tone), all within a whole face context. The procedure is designed to closely match the holistic manner by which humans&#8217; process faces. On completion, based on their memory of the culprit, ratings of composite-culprit similarity are collected from the participant-witnesses. Similar ratings are collected from culprit-acquaintance assessors, as a marker of composite recognition likelihood. Following a further delay, all participants &#8212; including the controls&#160;&#8212; attempt to identify the culprit in either a culprit-present or culprit-absent video line-up, to replicate circumstances in which the police have located the correct culprit, or an innocent suspect. Data of control and participant-witness line-up outcomes are presented, demonstrating the positive influence of holistic composite construction on identification accuracy. Correlational analyses are conducted to measure the relationship between assessor and participant-witness composite-culprit similarity ratings, delay, identification accuracy, and confidence to examine which factors influence video line-up outcomes.

This applied experimental paradigm replicates circumstances by which an eyewitness to a real crime may create a holistic facial composite of the culprit from memory, and then attempt to identify the culprit from a video line-up containing the culprit or one in which he or she is not present.

整体面部复合创作以后的视频阵容目击者识别范式

The paradigm detailed in this manuscript describes an applied experimental method based on real police investigations during which an eyewitness or victim ...

Examining Recall Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood Using the Elicited Imitation Paradigm

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is commonly assessed using verbal report paradigms in adults, studying the development of this ability in preverbal infants and children proved challenging. Over the past 30 years, researchers have developed a non-verbal means of assessing recall memory known as the elicited or deferred imitation paradigm. In one variant of the procedure, participants are presented with novel three-dimensional stimuli for a brief baseline period before a researcher demonstrates a series of actions that culminate in an end- or goal-state. The participant is allowed to imitate the demonstrated actions immediately, after a delay, or both. Recall performance is then compared to baseline or to performance on novel control sequences presented at the same session; memory can be assessed for the individual target actions and the order in which they were completed. This procedure is an accepted analogue to the verbal report techniques used with adults, and it has served to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. In addition, the elicited or deferred imitation procedure has been modified and adapted to answer questions relevant to other aspects of cognitive functioning. The broad utility and application of imitation paradigms is discussed, along with limitations of the approach and directions for future research.

The elicited imitation procedure was established to examine the development of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. This procedure has been widely used to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood.

使用仿引起范式检查召回内存在婴幼儿时期

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is ...

The HoneyComb Paradigm for Research on Collective Human Behavior

Collective human behavior such as group movement frequently shows surprising patterns and regularities, such as the emergence of leadership. Recent literature has revealed that these patterns, often visible at the global level of the group, are based on self-organized, individual behaviors that follow several simple local parameters. Understanding the dynamics of human collective behavior can help to improve coordination and leadership in group and crowd scenarios, such as identifying the ideal placement and number of emergency exits in buildings.
In this article, we present the experimental paradigm HoneyComb, which can be used to systematically investigate conditions and effects of human collective behavior. This paradigm uses a computer-based multi-user platform, providing a setting that can be shaped and adapted to various types of research questions. Situational conditions (e.g., cost-benefit ratios for specific behavior, monetary incentives and resources, various degrees of uncertainty) can be set by experimenters, depending on the research question. Each participant's motions are recorded by the server as hexagonal coordinates with timestamps at an accuracy of 50 ms and with individual IDs. Thus, a metric can be defined on the playfield, and movement parameters (e.g., distances, velocity, clustering, etc.) of participants can be measured over time. Movement data can in turn be combined with non-computerized data from questionnaires garnered within the same experiment setup.
The HoneyComb paradigm is paving the way for new types of human movement experiments. We demonstrate here that these experiments can render results with sufficient internal validity to meaningfully deepen our understanding of human collective behavior.

Here, we present the computer-based, multi-agent game HoneyComb, which enables experimental investigations of collective human movement behavior via black-dot-avatars on a virtual 2D hexagonal playfield. Different experimental conditions, like variable&#160;incentives on goal fields or vision radius, can be set, and their effects on human movement behavior can be investigated.

集体人类行为研究的蜂窝范式

Collective human behavior such as group movement frequently shows surprising patterns and regularities, such as the emergence of leadership. Recent ...

Enactive Phenomenological Approach to the Trier Social Stress Test: A Mixed Methods Point of View

The single Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and the TSST for groups (TSST-G) are the most used protocols to experimentally induce psychosocial stress. These tests are based on uncontrollability and social-evaluative threat, inducing psychological and physiological consequences (e.g., anxiety, emotional states, salivary cortisol increases). Many quantitative experimental studies have investigated these stress inducers and these consequences. But, as far as we know, this study is the first to provide a qualitative analysis to access the participants' voices so as to understand the dynamics of their experience throughout the TSST and the TSST-G. This paper outlines a mixed methods approach to the TSST. This approach can help to maximize the information that can be gained from the TSST, which researchers often use without looking more closely at what is qualitatively happening psychologically for participants during the stressor itself. In this way, this protocol is an example of mixed methods, showing the added value of using the enactive phenomenological approach to analyze experimental protocols more deeply. This kind of mixed methods is helpful to access the experience, to understand the actor's point of view, and to analyze in-depth the dynamics of cognitive processes like intentions, perceptions, enacted knowledge, and emotion. The discussion section shows the different uses of a mixed methods protocol, exploiting the enactive phenomenological approach to analyze a protocol or to give a cross vision of the same research subject. This section deals with different existing applications, pointing out some critical steps in this mixed methods approach.

Here, we present an original mixed method combining a quantitative and a qualitative approach to examine accurately participants&#39; experiences during the Trier Social Stress Test and the Trier Social Stress Test for groups.

研究者社会压力测试的现象学研究: 一种混合方法的观点

The single Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and the TSST for groups (TSST-G) are the most used protocols to experimentally induce psychosocial stress. ...

Assessment of Stress Effects on Cognitive Flexibility using an Operant Strategy Shifting Paradigm

Stress affects cognitive function. Whether stress enhances or impairs cognitive function depends on several factors, including the 1) type, intensity, and duration of the stressor; 2) type of cognitive function under study; and 3) timing of the stressor in relation to learning or executing the cognitive task. Furthermore, sex differences among the effects of stress on cognitive function have been widely documented. Described here is an adaptation of an automated operant strategy shifting paradigm to assess how variations in stress affect cognitive flexibility in male and female Sprague Dawley rats. Specifically, restraint stress is used before or after training in this operant-based task to examine how stress affects cognitive performance in both sexes. Particular brain areas associated with each task in this automated paradigm have been well-established (i.e., the medial prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex). This allows for targeted manipulations during the experiment or the assessment of particular genes and proteins in these regions upon completion of the paradigm. This paradigm also allows for the detection of different types of performance errors that occur after stress, each of which has defined neural substrates. Also identified are distinct sex differences in perseverative errors after a repeated restraint stress paradigm. The use of these techniques in a preclinical model may reveal how stress affects the brain and impairs cognition in psychiatric disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD), which display marked sex differences in prevalence.

Stressful life events impair cognitive function, increasing the risk of psychiatric disorders. This protocol illustrates how stress affects cognitive flexibility using an automated operant strategy shifting paradigm in male and female Sprague Dawley rats. Specific brain areas underlying particular behaviors are discussed, and translational relevance of results are explored.

使用操作策略转移范式评估压力对认知灵活性的影响

Stress affects cognitive function. Whether stress enhances or impairs cognitive function depends on several factors, including the 1) type, intensity, and ...

A Standardized Method for Measurement of Elbow Kinesthesia

Proprioception is an important component of controlled movement. The threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM) is a commonly used method for quantifying the proprioceptive submodality of kinesthesia in research settings. The TDPM paradigm has been found to be valid and reliable; however, the equipment and methods used for TDPM vary between studies. In particular, the research laboratory apparatuses for producing passive movement of an extremity are often custom designed by individual laboratories or inaccessible due to high cost. There is a need for a standardized, valid, and reliable method for measuring TDPM using readily available equipment. The purpose of this protocol is to provide a standardized method for measurement of TDPM at the elbow that is economical, easy to administer, and that produces quantitative results for measurement purposes in research-based settings. This method was tested on 20 healthy adults without neurological impairment, and eight adults with chronic stroke. The results obtained suggest this method is a reliable way to quantify elbow TDPM in healthy adults, and provides initial support for validity. Researchers seeking a balance between equipment affordability and measurement precision are most likely to find this protocol of benefit.

Here, we present a standardized method for measurement of elbow passive kinesthesia using the threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM) that is appropriate for a research setting.

肘部运动麻醉的标准化测量方法

Proprioception is an important component of controlled movement. The threshold to detection of passive movement (TDPM) is a commonly used method for ...

Using a Murine Model of Psychosocial Stress in Pregnancy as a Translationally Relevant Paradigm for Psychiatric Disorders in Mothers and Infants

The peripartum period is considered a sensitive period where adverse maternal exposures can result in long-term negative consequences for both mother and offspring, including the development of neuropsychiatric disorders. Risk factors linked to the emergence of affective dysregulation in the maternal-infant dyad have been extensively studied. Exposure to psychosocial stress during pregnancy has consistently emerged as one of the strongest predictors. Several rodent models have been created to explore this association; however, these models rely on the use of physical stressors or a limited number of psychosocial stressors presented in a repetitive fashion, which do not accurately capture the type, intensity, and frequency of stressors experienced by women. To overcome these limitations, a chronic psychosocial stress (CGS) paradigm was generated that employs various psychosocial insults of different intensity presented in an unpredictable fashion. The manuscript describes this novel CGS paradigm where pregnant female mice, from gestational day 6.5 to 17.5, are exposed to various stressors during the day and overnight. Day stressors, two per day separated by a 2 h break, range from exposure to foreign objects or predator odor to frequent changes in bedding, removal of bedding, and cage tilting. Overnight stressors include continuous light exposure, changing cage mates, or wetting bedding. We have previously shown that exposure to CGS results in the development of maternal neuroendocrine and behavioral abnormalities, including increased stress reactivity, the emergence of fragmented maternal care patterns, anhedonia, and anxiety-related behaviors, core features of women suffering from perinatal mood and anxiety disorders. This CGS model, therefore, becomes a unique tool that can be used to elucidate molecular defects underlying maternal affective dysregulation, as well as trans-placental mechanisms that impact fetal neurodevelopment and result in negative long-term behavioral consequences in the offspring.

The chronic psychosocial stress (CGS) paradigm employs clinically relevant stressors during pregnancy in mice to model psychiatric disorders of mothers and infants. Here, we provide a step-by-step procedure of applying the CGS paradigm and downstream assessments to validate this model.

使用妊娠期心理社会压力的Murine模型作为母亲和婴儿精神障碍的翻译相关范式

The peripartum period is considered a sensitive period where adverse maternal exposures can result in long-term negative consequences for both mother and ...