这项工作是支持的大学，路易斯维尔和CA135123从美国国立卫生研究院（CH）的启动资金。

1。细胞培养和转染<ol><li>补充与4.5克/升葡萄糖和10％牛胎儿血清（FBS）的Dulbecco改良的Eagle氏培养基（DMEM）中培养COS-7细胞。 </li><li>根据制造商的说明（Invitrogen公司），与Lipofectamine质粒转染。 </li></ol> 2。 SNARE细胞表面表达的荧光显微分析<ol><li>转染前一天，3×10 4个 COS-7细胞接种在无菌的12毫米的盖玻片（Fisher Scientific）的24孔培养板中所载。 </li><li>对于v-细胞，在各孔中，0.25微克，编码tTA的质粒（pTet-关闭，CLONTECH公司）共转染的质粒表达翻转VAMPS用0.25微克。 </li><li> 0.25微克的质粒编码TRE-LacZ的（的pBI-G，CLONTECH公司）对于t在每个孔中的细胞，用0.25微克表示翻转SNAP-25和syntaxins 1或4的每一个的质粒共转染。 </li><li> 24小时后T转染的，固定细胞，用4％的多聚甲醛（PBS补充有0.1克/升CaCl 2和0.1克/升的MgCl 2）10分钟，然后在10％FBS的在PBS中的阻塞，在PBS + + + + 30分钟。 </li><li>与抗Myc单克隆抗体9E10（纯的杂交瘤培养上清液），将细胞温育1.5小时。 </li><li> PBS + +洗涤四次后，将细胞温育1小时，在1:500稀释的FITC标记的二次抗体（Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories公司）。 </li><li>洗涤四次后用PBS + +，标记的细胞被安装在延长Gold抗淬灭试剂（Invitrogen）。 </li><li>共聚焦图像采集的奥林巴斯激光扫描共聚焦显微镜。与Adobe Photoshop软件处理图像。 </li></ol> 3。流式细胞仪检测细胞表面SNARE表达<ol><li>转染前一天，2×10 5 COS-7细胞接种于6孔培养板的各孔中。 </li><li> 24小时后，TRAnsfection与翻转圈套，pTet-Off和的pBI-G质粒，细胞被固定，用1％多聚甲醛的PBS + +的15分钟，然后在10％FBS在PBS + + 15分钟中断。 </li><li>将细胞孵育60分钟抗Myc单克隆抗体9E10。 </li><li>洗涤三次后，用PBS + +中，被标记细胞用FITC标记的二次抗体（1:200稀释），45分钟。 </li><li>用PBS洗涤三次后，+ +，将细胞刮下板，用细胞刮刀破碎。 </li><li>使用FACSCalibur流式细胞仪（BD Biosciences公司），分析了15,000个细胞。使用CellQuest Pro软件得到各样品的平均荧光强度。 </li></ol> 4。酶细胞融合含量<ol><li>转染前一天，1.2×10 6个 COS-7细胞接种于每100毫米的组织培养皿中，和2×10 5 COS-7细胞接种于6孔培养板的各孔中。 </li><li>对于v-细胞，0.5 - 5微克每个flipp编辑VAMP质粒共转染pTet关闭到每100毫米的培养皿中的细胞用5μg。控制细胞转染空载体pcDNA3.1（+）和pTet关闭。为了防止鞋面1，4，5，7和8，衣霉素的N-糖基化的（10微克/毫升）被包括在转染细胞培养基中。 </li><li>对于t-细胞的6孔培养板的各孔中，1微克翻转SNAP-25质粒的pBI-G的共转染0.5μg的翻转的翻转syntaxin4质粒syntaxin1质粒或0.05微克。 </li><li>转染后24小时，培养皿与酶的无细胞解离缓冲液（Invitrogen）中的v-细胞脱离。剥离的细胞，用血细胞计数器计数，并再悬浮在HEPES缓冲的DMEM培养液含10％FBS，6.7微克/毫升衣霉素和0.67 1mM DTT的。 </li><li> 4.8×10 5再悬浮的v-细胞被添加到每个孔中已经含有的t-细胞。 </li><li> 6，第12或24小时后的大鼠37℃，在5％CO 2的 </sub&gt;中，与报告基因裂解缓冲液中使用的β-半乳糖苷酶的酶活性检测系统，根据制造商的说明书（Promega公司）测定β-半乳糖苷酶的表达。简言之，细胞用PBS洗涤两次，然后在报告裂解缓冲液裂解。含量2×缓冲液与等体积的细胞溶胞产物混合。报告裂解缓冲液作为空白对照，检测2×缓冲液混合。 </li><li> 90分钟后，停止显色反应，通过加入1M碳酸钠。 </li><li>在420 nm处的吸光度测量采用日立100-40分光光度计。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Rothman, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+intracellular+protein+transport.">Mechanisms of intracellular protein transport.</a> Nature. 372, 55-63 (1994).</li><li>Jahn, R., Lang, T., Sudhof, T. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Membrane+fusion.">Membrane fusion.</a> Cell. 112, 519-533 (2003).</li><li>Bonifacino, J. S., Glick, B. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanisms+of+vesicle+budding+and+fusion.">The mechanisms of vesicle budding and fusion.</a> Cell. 116, 153-166 (2004).</li><li>Jahn, R., Scheller, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SNAREs--engines+for+membrane+fusion.">SNAREs--engines for membrane fusion.</a> Nature. 7, 631-643 (2006).</li><li>Weber, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SNAREpins:+minimal+machinery+for+membrane+fusion.">SNAREpins: minimal machinery for membrane fusion.</a> Cell. 92, 759-772 (1998).</li><li>Hu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fusion+of+cells+by+flipped+SNAREs.">Fusion of cells by flipped SNAREs.</a> Science (New York, N.Y). 300, 1745-1749 (2003).</li><li>Hu, C., Hardee, D., Minnear, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Membrane+fusion+by+VAMP3+and+plasma+membrane+t-SNAREs.">Membrane fusion by VAMP3 and plasma membrane t-SNAREs.</a> Experimental cell research. 313, 3198-3209 (2007).</li><li>Hasan, N., Corbin, D., Hu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fusogenic+Pairings+of+Vesicle-Associated+Membrane+Proteins+(VAMPs)+and+Plasma+Membrane+t-SNAREs+-+VAMP5+as+the+Exception.">Fusogenic Pairings of Vesicle-Associated Membrane Proteins (VAMPs) and Plasma Membrane t-SNAREs - VAMP5 as the Exception.</a> PloS one. 5, e14238 (2010).</li><li>Gossen, M., Bujard, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tight+control+of+gene+expression+in+mammalian+cells+by+tetracycline-responsive+promoters.">Tight control of gene expression in mammalian cells by tetracycline-responsive promoters.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 89, 5547-5551 (1992).</li><li>Hanson, P. I., Heuser, J. E., Jahn, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurotransmitter+release+-+four+years+of+SNARE+complexes.">Neurotransmitter release - four years of SNARE complexes.</a> Current opinion in neurobiology. 7, 310-315 (1997).</li><li>McMahon, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellubrevin+is+a+ubiquitous+tetanus-toxin+substrate+homologous+to+a+putative+synaptic+vesicle+fusion+protein.+[see+comments.">Cellubrevin is a ubiquitous tetanus-toxin substrate homologous to a putative synaptic vesicle fusion protein. [see comments.</a> Nature. 364, 346-349 (1993).</li><li>Steegmaier, M., Klumperman, J., Foletti, D. L., Yoo, J. S., Scheller, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vesicle-associated+membrane+protein+4+is+implicated+in+trans-Golgi+network+vesicle+trafficking.">Vesicle-associated membrane protein 4 is implicated in trans-Golgi network vesicle trafficking.</a> Molecular biology of the cell. 10, 1957-1972 (1999).</li><li>Zeng, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+synaptobrevin/VAMP+homologous+protein+(VAMP5)+is+increased+during+in+vitro+myogenesis+and+present+in+the+plasma+membrane.">A novel synaptobrevin/VAMP homologous protein (VAMP5) is increased during in vitro myogenesis and present in the plasma membrane.</a> Molecular biology of the cell. 9, 2423-2437 (1998).</li><li>Galli, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+tetanus+neurotoxin-insensitive+vesicle-associated+membrane+protein+in+SNARE+complexes+of+the+apical+plasma+membrane+of+epithelial+cells.">A novel tetanus neurotoxin-insensitive vesicle-associated membrane protein in SNARE complexes of the apical plasma membrane of epithelial cells.</a> Molecular biology of the cell. 9, 1437-1448 (1998).</li><li>Wong, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endobrevin,+a+novel+synaptobrevin/VAMP-like+protein+preferentially+associated+with+the+early+endosome.">Endobrevin, a novel synaptobrevin/VAMP-like protein preferentially associated with the early endosome.</a> Molecular biology of the cell. 9, 1549-1563 (1998).</li></ol>

没有利益冲突的声明。

原细胞融合实验6荧光显微镜决定SNARE蛋白介导的细胞融合。在这里，我们描述了一个创新的分析，量化SNARE蛋白介导的细胞融合，通过激活β-半乳糖苷酶的表达和光谱测量。使用这个实验中，我们经常分析15 - V-20和T-SNARE组合在一个单一的实验。使用流式细胞仪来测量圈套在细胞表面的表达，我们滴定的鞋面的表达水平，并比较它们的膜融合的能力（图2和图4）。此外，使用的酶的细胞融?...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 试剂和设备名称 </td><td> 公司 </td><td> 目录号 </td></tr><tr><td> DMEM </td><td> Invitrogen公司</td><td> 12800-017 </td></tr><tr><td> COS-7细胞</td><td> ATCC </td><td> CRL-1651 </td></tr><tr><td>衣霉素</td><td> Sigma-Aldrich公司</td><td> T7765-5MG </td></tr><tr><td> pTet关闭</td><td> Clontech公司</td><td> K1620-A </td></tr><tr><td> PBI-G </td><td> Clontech公司</td><td> 6150-1 </td></tr><tr><td>脂质体转染法</td><td> Invitrogen公司</td><td> 18324-012 </td></tr><tr><td>酶细胞分离解决方案</td><td> Invitrogen公司</td><td> 13151-014 </td></tr><tr><td>兔抗-TET阻遏多克隆抗体</td><td>密理博</td><td> AB3541 </td></tr><tr><td> FITC标记的驴抗小鼠IgG（H + L） </td><td>江淮KSON immunoresearch公司</td><td> 715-095-150 </td></tr><tr><td>激光扫描共聚焦显微镜</td><td>奥林巴斯</td><td> FV1000 </td></tr><tr><td> FACSCalibur流式细胞仪</td><td> BD Biosciences公司</td><td></td></tr><tr><td> β-半乳糖苷酶活性检测系统的报告裂解缓冲液</td><td> Promega公司</td><td> E2000 </td></tr><tr><td>型号100-40 UV-VIS分光光度计</td><td>日立</td><td> C740843 </td></tr></tbody></table>

analysis of snare-mediated membrane fusion using an enzymatic cell fusion assay

T-SNARE蛋白的相互作用的SNARE（oluble N-乙基马来酰亚胺敏感因子一个的重整 ttachment蛋白受体）的目标膜蛋白在囊泡（V-SNARE蛋白）和（）催化细胞内的囊泡融合1-4。重组分析是必不可少的解剖机制和调节SNARE蛋白介导的膜融合5。在细胞融合实验6,7中 ，异位SNARE蛋白表达在细胞表面。这些“翻转”SNARE蛋白驱动细胞与细胞融合，展示，网罗足够细胞膜融合。由于测定是基于微观分析的细胞融合，它是低效率的，使用时，多个的v-叔SNARE相互作用定量分析。 在这里，我们描述了一种新的检测的量化β-半乳糖苷酶的活性表达的SNARE蛋白介导的细胞融合。二在Tet-关基因表达系统9的组件被用作读出系统：四环素控制的反式激活（tTA的）和四环素反应元件（TRE-LacZ的）的控制下，编码的LacZ基因的报道质粒。我们tTA的转染到COS-7细胞表达翻转的v-SNARE蛋白在细胞表面（的v-细胞）和TRE-LacZ基因转染到COS-7细胞表达翻转叔SNARE蛋白在细胞表面（t细胞） 。 SNAP-依赖的融合的v-和T-细胞的查询结果中的结合的tTA的TRE，LacZ和β-半乳糖苷酶的表达的转录激活。 β-半乳糖苷酶的活性，使用的比色的方法通过在420 nm处的吸光度进行定量。 囊泡相关膜蛋白（VAMPS），是V-SNARE蛋白驻留在不同的后高尔基体泡状车厢10-15。鞋面1，3，4，5，7和8，在相同的水平表达，我们比较了它们的膜融合活动中使用的酶的细胞融合实验。基于光谱测量，该法提供了一个量化的方法分析SNARE蛋白介导的膜融合，为高通量研究。

要制定一个定量的细胞融合实验，我们利用强有力的转录激活TTA到TRE的结合。在tTA的的情况下，转录的 LacZ基因在TRE-LacZ的是无声的。 tTA的存在时，它的TRE结合并激活的 LacZ基因的转录， 图1示出了流程图的酶的细胞融合实验。 tTA的转染到v-细胞表达的v-SNARE蛋白在细胞表面，和TRE-LacZ基因转染到t细胞，在细胞表面的表达叔SNARE蛋白。的v-和T-细胞的查询结果中?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analysis of SNARE-mediated Membrane Fusion Using an Enzymatic Cell Fusion Assay at JoVE.com

Analysis of SNARE-mediated Membrane Fusion Using an Enzymatic Cell Fusion Assay

我们已经开发出一种量化SNARE介导膜融合事件由激活的β-半乳糖苷酶的表达的细胞融合实验。

SNARE蛋白介导的膜融合酶的细胞融合含量的分析

The interactions of SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor)  proteins on vesicles (v-SNAREs) and on target membranes ...

analysis-snare-mediated-membrane-fusion-using-an-enzymatic-cell

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

13.9K 次观看.  University of Louisville School of Medicine. 我们已经开发出一种量化SNARE介导膜融合事件由激活的β-半乳糖苷酶的表达的细胞融合实验。

视频: Analysis of SNARE-mediated Membrane Fusion Using an Enzymatic Cell Fusion Assay

Method for Measurement of Viral Fusion Kinetics at the Single Particle Level

Membrane fusion is an essential step during entry of enveloped viruses into cells. Conventional fusion assays typically report on a large number of fusion events, making it difficult to quantitatively analyze the sequence of the molecular steps involved. We have developed an in vitro, two-color fluorescence assay to monitor kinetics of single virus particles fusing with a target bilayer on an essentially fluid support.
Influenza viral particles are incubated with a green lipophilic fluorophore to stain the membrane and a red hydrophilic fluorophore to stain the viral interior. We deposit a ganglioside-containing lipid bilayer on the dextran-functionilized glass surface of a flow cell, incubate the viral particles on the planar bilayer and image the fluorescence of a 100 x 100 &mu;m2 area, containing several hundreds of particles, on a CCD camera. By imaging both the red and green fluorescence, we can simultaneously monitor the behavior of the membrane dye (green) and the aqueous content (red) of the particles.
Upon lowering the pH to a value below the fusion pH, the particles will fuse with the membrane. Hemifusion, the merging of the outer leaflet of the viral membrane with the outer leaflet of the target membrane, will be visible as a sudden change in the green fluorescence of a particle. Upon the subsequent fusion of the two remaining distal leaflets a pore will be formed and the red-emitting fluorophore in the viral particle will be released under the target membrane. This event will give rise to a decrease of the red fluorescence of individual particles. Finally, the integrated fluorescence from a pH-sensitive fluorophore that is embedded in the target membrane reports on the exact time of the pH drop.
From the three fluorescence-time traces, all the important events (pH drop, lipid mixing upon hemifusion, content mixing upon pore formation) can now be extracted in a straightforward manner and for every particle individually. By collecting the elapsed times for the various transitions for many individual particles in histograms, we can determine the lifetimes of the corresponding intermediates. Even hidden intermediates that do not have a direct fluorescent observable can be visualized directly from these histograms.

We present an in vitro, two-color fluorescence assay to visualize the fusion of single virus particles with a fluid target bilayer. By labeling viral particles with fluorophores that differentially stain the viral membrane and its interior, we are able to monitor the kinetics of hemifusion and pore formation.

病毒融合动力学测量方法在单粒子能级

Membrane fusion is an essential step during entry of enveloped viruses into cells. Conventional fusion assays typically report on a large number of fusion ...

科研

生物学

Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion in the Ovine Model

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) is the most common surgical operation for cervical radiculopathy and/or myelopathy in patients who have failed conservative treatment1,5. Since the operation was first described by Cloward2 and Smith and Robinson6 in 1958, a variety refinements in technique, graft material and implants have been made3. In particular, there is a need for safe osteoinductive agents that could benefit selected patients. The ovine model has been shown to have anatomical, biomechanical, bone density and radiological properties that are similar to the human counterpart, the most similar level being C3/44. It is therefore an ideal model in which preclinical studies can be performed. In particular this methodology may be useful to researchers interested in evaluating different devices and biologics, including stem cells, for potential application in human spinal surgery.

This video demonstrates the technique of anterior cervical discectomy and fusion in the ovine model.

颈椎前路椎间盘切除术和融合在绵羊模型

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) is the most common surgical operation for cervical radiculopathy and/or myelopathy in patients who have ...

Fluorescent Labeling of COS-7 Expressing SNAP-tag Fusion Proteins for Live Cell Imaging

SNAP-tag and CLIP-tag protein labeling systems enable the specific, covalent attachment of molecules, including fluorescent dyes, to a protein of interest in live cells. These systems offer a broad selection of fluorescent substrates optimized for a range of imaging instrumentation. Once cloned and expressed, the tagged protein can be used with a variety of substrates for numerous downstream applications without having to clone again. There are two steps to using this system: cloning and expression of the protein of interest as a SNAP-tag fusion, and labeling of the fusion with the SNAP-tag substrate of choice. The SNAP-tag is a small protein based on human O6-alkylguanine-DNA-alkyltransferase (hAGT), a DNA repair protein. SNAP-tag labels are dyes conjugated to guanine or chloropyrimidine leaving groups via a benzyl linker. In the labeling reaction, the substituted benzyl group of the substrate is covalently attached to the SNAP-tag. CLIP-tag is a modified version of SNAP-tag, engineered to react with benzylcytosine rather than benzylguanine derivatives. When used in conjunction with SNAP-tag, CLIP-tag enables the orthogonal and complementary labeling of two proteins simultaneously in the same cells.

SNAP-tag and CLIP-tag protein labeling systems enable the specific, covalent attachment of molecules, including fluorescent dyes, to a protein of interest in live cells. Once cloned and expressed, the tagged protein can be used with a variety of substrates for numerous downstream applications without having to clone again.

对活细胞成像的SNAP - Tag融合蛋白的荧光标记的COS - 7

SNAP-tag and CLIP-tag protein labeling systems enable the specific, covalent attachment of molecules, including fluorescent dyes, to a protein of interest ...

A Faster, High Resolution, mtPA-GFP-based Mitochondrial Fusion Assay Acquiring Kinetic Data of Multiple Cells in Parallel Using Confocal Microscopy

Mitochondrial fusion plays an essential role in mitochondrial calcium homeostasis, bioenergetics, autophagy and quality control. Fusion is quantified in living cells by photo-conversion of matrix targeted photoactivatable GFP (mtPAGFP) in a subset of mitochondria. The rate at which the photoconverted molecules equilibrate across the entire mitochondrial population is used as a measure of fusion activity. Thus far measurements were performed using a single cell time lapse approach, quantifying the equilibration in one cell over an hour. Here, we scale up and automate a previously published live cell method based on using mtPAGFP and a low concentration of TMRE (15 nm). This method involves photoactivating a small portion of the mitochondrial network, collecting highly resolved stacks of confocal sections every 15 min for 1 hour, and quantifying the change in signal intensity. Depending on several factors such as ease of finding PAGFP expressing cells, and the signal of the photoactivated regions, it is possible to collect around 10 cells within the 15 min intervals. This provides a significant improvement in the time efficiency of this assay while maintaining the highly resolved subcellular quantification as well as the kinetic parameters necessary to capture the detail of mitochondrial behavior in its native cytoarchitectural environment.
Mitochondrial dynamics play a role in many cellular processes including respiration, calcium regulation, and apoptosis1,2,3,13. The structure of the mitochondrial network affects the function of mitochondria, and the way they interact with the rest of the cell. Undergoing constant division and fusion, mitochondrial networks attain various shapes ranging from highly fused networks, to being more fragmented. Interestingly, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Charcot Marie Tooth 2A, and dominant optic atrophy have been correlated with altered mitochondrial morphology, namely fragmented networks4,10,13. Often times, upon fragmentation, mitochondria become depolarized, and upon accumulation this leads to impaired cell function18. Mitochondrial fission has been shown to signal a cell to progress toward apoptosis. It can also provide a mechanism by which to separate depolarized and inactive mitochondria to keep the bulk of the network robust14. Fusion of mitochondria, on the other hand, leads to sharing of matrix proteins, solutes, mtDNA and the electrochemical gradient, and also seems to prevent progression to apoptosis9. How fission and fusion of mitochondria affects cell homeostasis and ultimately the functioning of the organism needs further understanding, and therefore the continuous development and optimization of how to gather information on these phenomena is necessary.
Existing mitochondrial fusion assays have revealed various insights into mitochondrial physiology, each having its own advantages. The hybrid PEG fusion assay7, mixes two populations of differently labeled cells (mtRFP and mtYFP), and analyzes the amount of mixing and colocalization of fluorophores in fused, multinucleated, cells. Although this method has yielded valuable information, not all cell types can fuse, and the conditions under which fusion is stimulated involves the use of toxic drugs that likely affect the normal fusion process. More recently, a cell free technique has been devised, using isolated mitochondria to observe fusion events based on a luciferase assay1,5. Two human cell lines are targeted with either the amino or a carboxy terminal part of Renilla luciferase along with a leucine zipper to ensure dimerization upon mixing. Mitochondria are isolated from each cell line, and fused. The fusion reaction can occur without the cytosol under physiological conditions in the presence of energy, appropriate temperature and inner mitochondrial membrane potential. Interestingly, the cytosol was found to modulate the extent of fusion, demonstrating that cell signaling regulates the fusion process 4,5. This assay will be very useful for high throughput screening to identify components of the fusion machinery and also pharmacological compounds that may affect mitochondrial dynamics. However, more detailed whole cell mitochondrial assays will be needed to complement this in vitro assay to observe these events within a cellular environment.
A technique for monitoring whole-cell mitochondrial dynamics has been in use for some time and is based on a mitochondrially-targeted photoactivatable GFP (mtPAGFP)6,11. Upon expression of the mtPAGFP, a small portion of the mitochondrial network is photoactivated (10-20%), and the spread of the signal to the rest of the mitochondrial network is recorded every 15 minutes for 1 hour using time lapse confocal imaging. Each fusion event leads to a dilution of signal intensity, enabling quantification of the fusion rate. Although fusion and fission are continuously occurring in cells, this technique only monitors fusion as fission does not lead to a dilution of the PAGFP signal6. Co-labeling with low levels of TMRE (7-15 nM in INS1 cells) allows quantification of the membrane potential of mitochondria. When mitochondria are hyperpolarized they uptake more TMRE, and when they depolarize they lose the TMRE dye. Mitochondria that depolarize no longer have a sufficient membrane potential and tend not to fuse as efficiently if at all. Therefore, active fusing mitochondria can be tracked with these low levels of TMRE9,15. Accumulation of depolarized mitochondria that lack a TMRE signal may be a sign of phototoxicity or cell death. Higher concentrations of TMRE render mitochondria very sensitive to laser light, and therefore great care must be taken to avoid overlabeling with TMRE. If the effect of depolarization of mitochondria is the topic of interest, a technique using slightly higher levels of TMRE and more intense laser light can be used to depolarize mitochondria in a controlled fashion (Mitra and Lippincott-Schwartz, 2010). To ensure that toxicity due to TMRE is not an issue, we suggest exposing loaded cells (3-15 nM TMRE) to the imaging parameters that will be used in the assay (perhaps 7 stacks of 6 optical sections in a row), and assessing cell health after 2 hours. If the mitochondria appear too fragmented and cells are dying, other mitochondrial markers, such as dsRED or Mitotracker red could be used instead of TMRE.
The mtPAGFP method has revealed details about mitochondrial network behavior that could not be visualized using other methods. For example, we now know that mitochondrial fusion can be full or transient, where matrix content can mix without changing the overall network morphology. Additionally, we know that the probability of fusion is independent of contact duration and organelle dimension, is influenced by organelle motility, membrane potential and history of previous fusion activity8,15,16,17.
In this manuscript, we describe a methodology for scaling up the previously published protocol using mtPAGFP and 15nM TMRE8 in order to examine multiple cells at a time and improve the time efficiency of data collection without sacrificing the subcellular resolution. This has been made possible by the use of an automated microscope stage, and programmable image acquisition software. Zen software from Zeiss allows the user to mark and track several designated cells expressing mtPAGFP. Each of these cells can be photoactivated in a particular region of interest, and stacks of confocal slices can be monitored for mtPAGFP signal as well as TMRE at specified intervals. Other confocal systems could be used to perform this protocol provided there is an automated stage that is programmable, an incubator with CO2, and a means by which to photoactivate the PAGFP; either a multiphoton laser, or a 405 nm diode laser.

Mitochondrial fusion was measured by tracking the equilibration of photoconverted matrix-targeted GFP across the mitochondrial network over time. Thus far, only one cell could be subjected to an hour long kinetic analysis at a time. We present a method that simultaneously measures multiple cells, thereby speeding up the data collection process.

速度更快，高分辨率，MTPA-GFP基于线粒体融合含量的收购多个单元格的动力学数据，在并行使用共聚焦显微镜

Mitochondrial fusion plays an essential role in mitochondrial calcium homeostasis, bioenergetics, autophagy and quality control. Fusion is quantified in ...

Expression of Fluorescent Fusion Proteins in Murine Bone Marrow-derived Dendritic Cells and Macrophages

Dendritic cells and macrophages are crucial cells that form the first line of defense against pathogens. They also play important roles in the initiation of an adaptive immune response. Experimental work with these cells is rather challenging. Their abundance in organs and tissues is relatively low. As a result, they cannot be isolated in large numbers. They are also difficult to transfect with cDNA constructs. In the murine model, these problems can be partially overcome by in vitro differentiation from bone marrow progenitors in the presence of M-CSF for macrophages or GM-CSF for dendritic cells. In this way, it is possible to obtain large amounts of these cells from very few animals. Moreover, bone marrow progenitors can be transduced with retroviral vectors carrying cDNA constructs during early stages of cultivation prior to their differentiation into bone marrow derived dendritic cells and macrophages. Thus, retroviral transduction followed by differentiation in vitro can be used to express various cDNA constructs in these cells. The ability to express ectopic proteins substantially extends the range of experiments that can be performed on these cells, including live cell imaging of fluorescent proteins, tandem purifications for interactome analyses, structure-function analyses, monitoring of cellular functions with biosensors and many others. In this article, we describe a detailed protocol for retroviral transduction of murine bone marrow derived dendritic cells and macrophages with vectors coding for fluorescently-tagged proteins. On the example of two adaptor proteins, OPAL1 and PSTPIP2, we demonstrate its practical application in flow cytometry and microscopy. We also discuss the advantages and limitations of this approach.

In this article, we provide a detailed protocol for the expression of fluorescent fusion proteins in murine bone marrow derived dendritic cells and macrophages. The method is based on the transduction of bone marrow progenitors with retroviral constructs followed by differentiation into macrophages and dendritic cells in vitro.

荧光融合蛋白在小鼠骨髓基质树突状细胞和巨噬细胞中的表达

Dendritic cells and macrophages are crucial cells that form the first line of defense against pathogens. They also play important roles in the initiation ...

LDL Cholesterol Uptake Assay Using Live Cell Imaging Analysis with Cell Health Monitoring

The regulation of LDL cholesterol uptake through LDLR-mediated endocytosis is an important area of study in various major pathologies including metabolic disorder, cardiovascular disease, and kidney disease. Currently, there is no available method to assess LDL uptake while simultaneously monitoring for health of the cells. The current study presents a protocol, using a live cell imaging analysis system, to acquire serial measurements of LDL influx with concurrent monitoring for cell health. This novel technique is tested in three human cell lines (hepatic, renal tubular epithelial, and coronary artery endothelial cells) over a four-hour time course. Moreover, the sensitivity of this technique is validated with well-known LDL uptake inhibitors, Dynasore and recombinant PCSK9 protein, as well as by an LDL uptake promoter, Simvastatin. Taken together, this method provides a medium-to-high throughput platform for simultaneously screening pharmacological activity as well as monitoring of cell morphology, hence cytotoxicity of compounds regulating LDL influx. The analysis can be used with different imaging systems and analytical software.

This protocol provides an efficient approach to measuring LDL cholesterol uptake with real time influx rates using a live cell imaging system in various cell types. This technique provides a platform to screen the pharmacological activity of compounds affecting LDL influx while monitoring for cell morphology and hence potential cytotoxicity.

基于细胞健康监测的实时细胞成像分析对低密度脂蛋白胆固醇的吸收检测

The regulation of LDL cholesterol uptake through LDLR-mediated endocytosis is an important area of study in various major pathologies including metabolic ...

Effect of Fluorescent Proteins on Fusion Partners Using Polyglutamine Toxicity Assays in Yeast

For the investigation of protein localization and trafficking using live cell imaging, researchers often rely on fusing their protein of interest to a fluorescent reporter. The constantly evolving list of genetically encoded fluorescent proteins (FPs) presents users with several alternatives when it comes to fluorescent fusion design. Each FP has specific optical and biophysical properties that can affect the biochemical, cellular, and functional properties of the resulting fluorescent fusions. For instance, several FPs tend to form nonspecific oligomers that are susceptible to impede on the function of the fusion partner. Unfortunately, only a few methods exist to test the impact of FPs on the behavior of the fluorescent reporter. Here, we describe a simple method that enables the rapid assessment of the impact of FPs using polyglutamine (polyQ) toxicity assays in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PolyQ-expanded huntingtin proteins are associated with the onset of Huntington&#39;s disease (HD), where the expanded huntingtin aggregates into toxic oligomers and inclusion bodies. The aggregation and toxicity of polyQ expansions in yeast are highly dependent on the sequences flanking the polyQ region, including the presence of fluorescent tags, thus providing an ideal experimental platform to study the impact of FPs on the behavior of their fusion partner.

This article describes protocols to assess the effect of fluorescent proteins on the aggregation and toxicity of misfolded polyglutamine expansion for the rapid evaluation of a newly uncharacterized fluorescent protein in the context of fluorescent reporters.

荧光蛋白对酵母中多谷氨酰胺毒性测定的融合伙伴的影响

For the investigation of protein localization and trafficking using live cell imaging, researchers often rely on fusing their protein of interest to a ...

Exploiting Live Imaging to Track Nuclei During Myoblast Differentiation and Fusion

Nuclear positioning within cells is important for multiple cellular processes in development and regeneration. The most intriguing example of nuclear positioning occurs during skeletal muscle differentiation. Muscle fibers (myofibers) are multinucleated cells formed by the fusion of muscle precursor cells (myoblasts) derived from muscle stem cells (satellite cells) that undergo proliferation and differentiation. Correct nuclear positioning within myofibers is required for the proper muscle regeneration and function. The common procedure to assess myoblast differentiation and myofiber formation relies on fixed cells analyzed by immunofluorescence, which impedes the study of nuclear movement and cell behavior over time. Here, we describe a method for the analysis of myoblast differentiation and myofiber formation by live cell imaging. We provide a software for automated nuclear tracking to obtain a high-throughput quantitative characterization of nuclear dynamics and myoblast behavior (i.e., the trajectory) during differentiation and fusion.

Skeletal muscle differentiation is a highly dynamic process, which particularly relies on nuclear positioning. Here, we describe a method to track nuclei movements by live cell imaging during myoblast differentiation and myotube formation and to perform a quantitative characterization of nuclei dynamics by extracting information from automatic tracking.

在成细胞分化和融合过程中利用活成像跟踪核

Nuclear positioning within cells is important for multiple cellular processes in development and regeneration. The most intriguing example of nuclear ...

Production of IgG Fusion Proteins Transiently Expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana

High demand for antibodies as therapeutic interventions for various infectious, metabolic, autoimmune, neoplastic, and other diseases creates a growing need in developing efficient methods for recombinant antibody production. As of 2019, there were more than 70 FDA-approved monoclonal antibodies, and there is exponential growth potential. Despite their promise, limiting factors for widespread use are manufacturing costs and complexity. Potentially, plants offer low-cost, safe, and easily scalable protein manufacturing&#160;strategies. Plants like Nicotiana benthamiana not only can correctly fold and assemble complex mammalian proteins but also can add critical post-translational modifications similar to those offered by mammalian cell cultures. In this work, by using native GFP and an acid-stable variant of green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused to human monoclonal antibodies, we were able to visualize the entire transient antibody expression and purification process from N. benthamiana plants. Depending on the experiment&#39;s purpose, native GFP fusion can ensure easier visualization during the expression phase in the plants, while acid-stable GFP fusion allows for visualization during downstream processing. This scalable and straightforward procedure can be performed by a single researcher to produce milligram quantities of highly pure antibody or antibody fusion proteins in a matter of days using only a few small plants. Such a technique can be extended to the visualization of any type of antibody purification process and potentially many other proteins, both in plant and other expression systems. Moreover, these techniques can benefit virtual instructions and be executed in a teaching laboratory by undergraduate students possessing minimal prior experience with molecular biology techniques, providing a foundation for project-based exploration with real-world applications.

Production of IgG Fusion Proteins Transiently Expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana

We describe here a simple method for expression, extraction, and purification of recombinant human IgG fused to GFP in Nicotiana benthamiana. This protocol can be extended to purification and visualization of numerous proteins that utilize column chromatography. Moreover, the protocol is adaptable to the in-person and virtual college teaching laboratory, providing project-based exploration.

在尼科蒂亚娜本 thamiana中瞬态表达IgG融合蛋白的生产

High demand for antibodies as therapeutic interventions for various infectious, metabolic, autoimmune, neoplastic, and other diseases creates a growing ...

Microsurgical Obstruction of Testes Fusion in Spodoptera litura

Instead of using genetic methods like RNA interference (RNAi) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated endonuclease Cas9, a physical barrier was microsurgically inserted between the testes of Spodoptera litura to study the impact of this microsurgery on its growth and reproduction. After inserting aluminum foil between the testes, insect molting during metamorphosis proceeded normally. Insect growth and development were not remarkably altered; however, the number of sperm bundles changed if testes fusion was stopped by the microsurgery. These findings imply that blocking testicular fusion can influence male reproduction capability. The method can be further applied to interrupt communication between organs to study the function of specific signaling pathways. Compared to conventional surgery, microsurgery only requires freezing anesthetization, which is preferable to carbon dioxide anesthetization. Microsurgery also minimizes the surgery site area and facilitates wound healing. However, the selection of materials with specific functions needs further investigation. Avoiding tissue injury is crucial when making incisions during the operation.

Microsurgical Obstruction of Testes Fusion in Spodoptera litura

Aluminum foil was microsurgically inserted between the testes of Spodoptera litura to obstruct the fusion of testis. The procedure includes freezing, fixing, disinfection, incision, placing the barrier, suturing, postoperative feeding, and inspection. This approach provides a method to interfere with tissue formation.

睾丸融合的显微外科梗阻

Instead of using genetic methods like RNA interference (RNAi) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated ...