Name: measurement of total calcium in neurons by electron probe x-ray microanalysis
Uploaded: 2013-11-20T17:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measurement of Total Calcium in Neurons by Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis at JoVE.com

We would like to thank Ms. Christine A. Winters for excellent technical assistance. This work was supported by the Basic Neuroscience Program of the NINDS Intramural Research Program, NIH (Z01 NS002610).

The approach described here was developed using specific instruments, tools and software. Because labs will not be using the same experimental setup the approach is generalized where possible.
1. Rapid Freezing
The analytical method to be described is absolutely dependent on cryogenic approaches for: 1) the &#34;cryofixation&#34; of cells or tissues in a manner that quantitatively preserves the distribution of diffusible tissue components and chemical elements as they...

<ol>
	<li>Aronova, M. A., Kim, Y. C., Pivovarova, N. B., Andrews, S. B., Leapman, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+EFTEM+mapping+of+near+physiological+calcium+concentrations+in+biological+specimens.">Quantitative EFTEM mapping of near physiological calcium concentrations in biological specimens.</a> Ultramicroscopy. 109, 201-212 (2009).</li><li>Aronova, M. A., Leapman, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elemental+mapping+by+electron+energy+loss+spectroscopy+in+biology.">Elemental mapping by electron energy loss spectroscopy in biology.</a> Methods Mol. Biol. 950, 209-226 (2013).</li><li>Bezprozvanny, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium+signaling+and+neurodegenerative+diseases.">Calcium signaling and neurodegenerative diseases.</a> Trends Mol. Med. 15, 89-100 (2009).</li><li>Fernandez-Segura, E., Warley, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+probe+X-ray+microanalysis+for+the+study+of+cell+physiology.">Electron probe X-ray microanalysis for the study of cell physiology.</a> Methods Cell Biol. 88, 19-43 (2008).</li><li>Gibson, G. E., Starkov, A., Blass, J. P., Ratan, R. R., Beal, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cause+and+consequence:+Mitochondrial+dysfunction+initiates+and+propagates+neuronal+dysfunction,+neuronal+death+and+behavioral+abnormalities+in+age-associated+neurodegenerative+diseases.">Cause and consequence: Mitochondrial dysfunction initiates and propagates neuronal dysfunction, neuronal death and behavioral abnormalities in age-associated neurodegenerative diseases.</a> Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1802, 122-134 (2010).</li><li>Leapman, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+techniques+in+electron+microscopy.">Novel techniques in electron microscopy.</a> Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 14, 591-598 (2004).</li><li>LeFurgey, A., Bond, M., Ingram, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Frontiers+in+electron+probe+microanalysis:+application+to+cell+physiology.">Frontiers in electron probe microanalysis: application to cell physiology.</a> Ultramicroscopy. 24, 185-219 (1988).</li><li>Newbury, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+new+X-ray+mapping:+X-ray+spectrum+imaging+above+100+kHz+output+count+rate+with+the+silicon+drift+detector.">The new X-ray mapping: X-ray spectrum imaging above 100 kHz output count rate with the silicon drift detector.</a> Microsc. Microanal. 12, 26-35 (2006).</li><li>Pierson, J., Vos, M., McIntosh, J. R., Peters, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perspectives+on+electron+cryotomography+of+vitreous+cryo-sections.">Perspectives on electron cryotomography of vitreous cryo-sections.</a> J. Electron Microsc. 60, S93-S100 (2011).</li><li>Pivovarova, N. B., Hongpaisan, J., Andrews, S. B., Friel, D. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Depolarization-induced+mitochondrial+Ca+accumulation+in+sympathetic+neurons:+spatial+and+temporal+characteristics.">Depolarization-induced mitochondrial Ca accumulation in sympathetic neurons: spatial and temporal characteristics.</a> J. Neurosci. 19, 6372-6384 (1999).</li><li>Pivovarova, N. B., Nguyen, H. V., Winters, C. A., Brantner, C. A., Smith, C. L., Andrews, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Excitotoxic+calcium+overload+in+a+subpopulation+of+mitochondria+triggers+delayed+death+in+hippocampal+neurons.">Excitotoxic calcium overload in a subpopulation of mitochondria triggers delayed death in hippocampal neurons.</a> J. Neurosci. 24, 5611-5622 (2004).</li><li>Ritchie, N. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectrum+simulation+in+DTSA-II.">Spectrum simulation in DTSA-II.</a> Microsc. Microanal. 15, 454-468 (2009).</li><li>Stanika, R. I., Winters, C. A., Pivovarova, N. B., Andrews, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+NMDA+receptor-dependent+calcium+loading+and+mitochondrial+dysfunction+in+CA1+vs.+CA3+hippocampal+neurons.">Differential NMDA receptor-dependent calcium loading and mitochondrial dysfunction in CA1 vs. CA3 hippocampal neurons.</a> Neurobiol. Dis. 37, 403-411 (2010).</li><li>Zhang, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+visualization+of+receptor+arrays+in+frozen-hydrated+sections+and+plunge-frozen+specimens+of+E.+coli+engineered+to+overproduce+the+hemotaxis+receptor+Tsr.">Direct visualization of receptor arrays in frozen-hydrated sections and plunge-frozen specimens of E. coli engineered to overproduce the hemotaxis receptor Tsr.</a> J. Microsc. 216, 76-83 (2004).</li></ol>

The electron microscope-based analytical method presented here allows for the detection, identification, and quantitation of several elements of biological interest, including Na, K, P, and especially Ca. These analyses can be carried out at subcellular, i.e., intra-organelle, resolution owing to the ability to locate and identify structures of interest in high-quality images of cryosections prepared from rapidly frozen specimens. Note that no staining is required to record electron images comparable in structur...

Calcium ions are arguably the most important and versatile cell signaling entity in biology, playing an essential role in normal processes as diverse as synaptic transmission and gene expression. On the other hand, calcium is equally important in cell death. In particular, calcium deregulation is a key factor in neuronal injury in stroke, Parkinson&#39;s, Alzheimer&#39;s and other neurodegenerative diseases3,5. Thus, it is critically important to understand quantitatively how calcium is distributed within cells, and how this changes following physiological or pathophysiological stimuli. This goal is complicated by the fact that calcium is dynamically distributed between two physical states - free in solution or bound to a substrate - and that cellular calcium concentrations change over several orders of magnitude as a consequence of stimulation.
While there are several advanced methodologies available for the analysis of free intracellular calcium, the determination of total calcium concentrations in defined intracellular compartments is realistically limited to one approach, namely, electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). EPMA is a technique that couples an X-ray spectrometer to a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The TEM electron gun focuses a stationary, submicron electron probe on a subcellular region of interest and the element-specific X-rays emitted as a result of electron bombardment are collected and analyzed (see references7,4 for detailed technical reviews). Advantages of EPMA include single organelle-level resolution and submillimolar sensitivity. In practice, however, EPMA requires specialized cryotechniques and instrumentation for specimen preparation and analysis. Here, the tools, techniques and instruments appropriate for measurements of intracellular calcium using EPMA are described. Intramitochondrial calcium is of special interest on account of the critical role that mitochondrial calcium overload plays in neurodegenerative diseases.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>REAGENTS/MATERIALS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermanox plastic coverslips</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>72280</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Culture inserts</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>353090</td>
			<td>For 6-well plates</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryopins</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>16701952</td>
			<td>Grooved</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wood applicators</td>
			<td>EM Sciences</td>
			<td>72300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Folding EM grids</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td>4GC100/100</td>
			<td>100 mesh</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Indium foil</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>13982</td>
			<td>0.25 mm thick</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>EQUIPMENT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plunge freezing device</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>KF-80</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slam freezing device</td>
			<td>LifeCell</td>
			<td>CF-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultramicrotome</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>UC6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryoattachment for microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>FC6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diamond cryotrimming tool</td>
			<td>Diatome</td>
			<td>Cryotrim 45</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diamond cryoknife</td>
			<td>Diatome</td>
			<td>Cryo 35</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antistatic device</td>
			<td>Diatome</td>
			<td>Hauf Static Line</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryo electron microscope</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss Microscopy</td>
			<td>EM912 Omega</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EM cryo specimen holder</td>
			<td>Gatan</td>
			<td>CT3500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slow-scan CCD camera, 2k x 2k</td>
			<td>Troendle (TRS)</td>
			<td>Sharpeye</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image acquisition software</td>
			<td>Olympus SIS</td>
			<td>iTEM suite</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ED x-ray detector</td>
			<td>Oxford Instruments</td>
			<td>Linksystem Pentafet</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pulse Processor</td>
			<td>Oxford Instruments</td>
			<td>XP-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCI backplane card</td>
			<td>4pi Systems</td>
			<td>Spectral Engine II</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Desktop computer</td>
			<td>Apple</td>
			<td>Any OS9-compatible model</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-ray analysis software</td>
			<td>NIST</td>
			<td>DTSA, DTSA II</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spreadsheet software</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td>Excel</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>
			<ol>
				<li>The CF100 is no longer sold commercially, although the machine is available at many academic facilities, and complete machines or parts can be found on-line.</li>
				<li>A video tutorial for the CT3500 cryotransfer holder is available at <a href="http://www.gatan.com/files/Movies/CT3500_Cryo_transfer_holder.mp4" target="_blank">http://www.gatan.com/files/Movies/CT3500_Cryo_transfer_holder.mp4</a>.</li>
				<li>The SEII is obsolete; the Universal Spectral Engine Is a later, PC-compatible product with comparable functionality. 4pi has ceased manufacturing and sales but still provides technical customer support. Used systems are often found online.</li>
				<li>The original DTSA is now obsolete. NIST offers in the public domain an updated successor, DTSA II 12 (<a href="http://www.nist.gov/mml/mmsd/software.cfm" target="_blank">http://www.nist.gov/mml/mmsd/software.cfm</a>)</li>
			</ol>
			</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measurement of total calcium in neurons by electron probe x-ray microanalysis

In this article the tools, techniques, and instruments appropriate for quantitative measurements of intracellular elemental content using the technique known as electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) are described. Intramitochondrial calcium is a particular focus because of the critical role that mitochondrial calcium overload plays in neurodegenerative diseases. The method is based on the analysis of X-rays generated in an electron microscope (EM) by interaction of an electron beam with the specimen. In order to maintain the native distribution of diffusible elements in electron microscopy specimens, EPMA requires &#34;cryofixation&#34; of tissue followed by the preparation of ultrathin cryosections. Rapid freezing of cultured cells or organotypic slice cultures is carried out by plunge freezing in liquid ethane or by slam freezing against a cold metal block, respectively. Cryosections nominally 80 nm thick are cut dry with a diamond knife at ca. -160 &#176;C, mounted on carbon/pioloform-coated copper grids, and cryotransferred into a cryo-EM using a specialized cryospecimen holder. After visual survey and location mapping at &#8804;-160 &#176;C and low electron dose, frozen-hydrated cryosections are freeze-dried at -100 &#176;C for ~30 min. Organelle-level images of dried cryosections are recorded, also at low dose, by means of a slow-scan CCD camera and subcellular regions of interest selected for analysis. X-rays emitted from ROIs by a stationary, focused, high-intensity electron probe are collected by an energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometer, processed by associated electronics, and presented as an X-ray spectrum, that is, a plot of X-ray intensity vs. energy. Additional software facilitates: 1) identification of elemental components by their &#34;characteristic&#34; peak energies and fingerprint; and 2) quantitative analysis by extraction of peak areas/background. This paper concludes with two examples that illustrate typical EPMA applications, one in which mitochondrial calcium analysis provided critical insight into mechanisms of excitotoxic injury and another that revealed the basis of ischemia resistance.

Brain cells typically sustain excitotoxic injury as a result of the pathological neurotransmitter release that occurs under ischemic conditions. EPMA was critical to discovering how the ability of neuronal mitochondria to sequester massive amounts of calcium underlies the mechanism of injury. The electron micrograph in Figure 3 illustrates the appearance of mitochondria in freeze-dried cryosections of cultured hippocampal neurons rapidly frozen after 30 min exposure to an excitotoxic stimulus (100 &#956;...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measurement of Total Calcium in Neurons by Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis at JoVE.com

Measurement of Total Calcium in Neurons by Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis

This paper describes the application of cryoanalytical electron microscopy to the quantitative measurement of total calcium content and distribution at subcellular resolution in physiologically defined biological specimens.

In this article the tools, techniques, and instruments appropriate for quantitative measurements of intracellular elemental content using the technique ...

measurement-total-calcium-neurons-electron-probe-x-ray

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Dissection and Culture of Commissural Neurons from Embryonic Spinal Cord

Commissural neurons have been widely used to investigate the mechanisms underlying axon guidance during embryonic spinal cord development. The cell bodies of these neurons are located in the dorsal spinal cord and their axons follow stereotyped trajectories during embryonic development. Commissural axons initially project ventrally towards the floorplate. After crossing the midline, these axons turn anteriorly and project towards the brain. Each of these steps is regulated by the action of several guidance cues. Cultures highly enriched in commissural neurons are ideally suited for many experiments addressing the mechanisms of axon pathfinding, including turning assays, immunochemistry and biochemistry. Here, we describe a method to dissect and culture commissural neurons from E13 rat dorsal spinal cord. First, the spinal cord is isolated and dorsal strips are dissected out. The dorsal tissue is then dissociated into a cell suspension by trypsinization and mechanical disruption. Neurons are plated onto poly-L-lysine-coated glass coverslips or tissue-culture dishes. After 30 hours in vitro, most neurons have extended an axon. The purity of the culture (Yam et al. 2009), typically over 90%, can be assessed by immunolabeling with the commissural neuron markers DCC, LH2 and TAG1 (Helms and Johnson, 1998). This neuronal preparation is a useful tool for in vitro studies of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of commissural axon growth and guidance during spinal cord development.

This video demonstrates a method to dissect and culture commissural neurons from E13 rat dorsal spinal cord. Dissociated commissural neurons are useful to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of axon growth and guidance.

Commissural neurons have been widely used to investigate the mechanisms underlying axon guidance during embryonic spinal cord development. The cell bodies ...

Large-scale Recording of Neurons by Movable Silicon Probes in Behaving Rodents

A major challenge in neuroscience is linking behavior to the collective activity of neural assemblies. Understanding of input-output relationships of neurons and circuits requires methods with the spatial selectivity and temporal resolution appropriate for mechanistic analysis of neural ensembles in the behaving animal, i.e. recording of representatively large samples of isolated single neurons. Ensemble monitoring of neuronal activity has progressed remarkably in the past decade in both small and large-brained animals, including human subjects1-11. Multiple-site recording with silicon-based devices are particularly effective because of their scalability, small volume and geometric design.
Here, we describe methods for recording multiple single neurons and local field potential in behaving rodents, using commercially available micro-machined silicon probes with custom-made accessory components. There are two basic options for interfacing silicon probes to preamplifiers: printed circuit boards and flexible cables. Probe supplying companies (<a href="http://www.neuronexustech.com/" >http://www.neuronexustech.com/</a>; <a href="http://www.sbmicrosystems.com/">http://www.sbmicrosystems.com/</a>; <a href="http://www.acreo.se/">http://www.acreo.se/</a>) usually provide the bonding service and deliver probes bonded to printed circuit boards or flexible cables. Here, we describe the implantation of a 4-shank, 32-site probe attached to flexible polyimide cable, and mounted on a movable microdrive. Each step of the probe preparation, microdrive construction and surgery is illustrated so that the end user can easily replicate the process.

We describe methods for large-scale recording of multiple single units and local field potential in behaving rodents with silicon probes. Drive fabrication, probe attachment to the drive and probe implantation processes are illustrated in sufficient details for easy replication.

A major challenge in neuroscience is linking behavior to the collective activity of neural assemblies. Understanding of input-output relationships of ...

Simultaneous Recording of Calcium Signals from Identified Neurons and Feeding Behavior of Drosophila melanogaster

To study neuronal networks in terms of their function in behavior, we must analyze how neurons operate when each behavioral pattern is generated. Thus, simultaneous recordings of neuronal activity and behavior are essential to correlate brain activity to behavior. For such behavioral analyses, the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, allows us to incorporate genetically encoded calcium indicators such as GCaMP1, to monitor neuronal activity, and to use sophisticated genetic manipulations for optogenetic or thermogenetic techniques to specifically activate identified neurons2-5. Use of a thermogenetic technique has led us to find critical neurons for feeding behavior (Flood et al., under revision). As a main part of feeding behavior, a Drosophila adult extends its proboscis for feeding6 (proboscis extension response; PER), responding to a sweet stimulus from sensory cells on its proboscis or tarsi. Combining the protocol for PER7 with a calcium imaging technique8 using GCaMP3.01, 9, I have established an experimental system, where we can monitor activity of neurons in the feeding center &#x2013; the suboesophageal ganglion (SOG), simultaneously with behavioral observation of the proboscis. I have designed an apparatus ("Fly brain Live Imaging and Electrophysiology Stage": "FLIES") to accommodate a Drosophila adult, allowing its proboscis to freely move while its brain is exposed to the bath for Ca2+ imaging through a water immersion lens. The FLIES is also appropriate for many types of live experiments on fly brains such as electrophysiological recording or time lapse imaging of synaptic morphology. Because the results from live imaging can be directly correlated with the simultaneous PER behavior, this methodology can provide an excellent experimental system to study information processing of neuronal networks, and how this cellular activity is coupled to plastic processes and memory.

Simultaneous Recording of Calcium Signals from Identified Neurons and Feeding Behavior of Drosophila melanogaster

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, extends its proboscis for feeding, responding to a sugar stimulus from its proboscis or tarsus. I have combined observations of the proboscis extension response (PER) with a calcium imaging technique, allowing us to monitor the activity of neurons in the brain, simultaneously with behavioral observation.

To study neuronal networks in terms of their function in behavior, we must analyze how neurons operate when each behavioral pattern is generated.  Thus, ...

Imaging Calcium Responses in GFP-tagged Neurons of Hypothalamic Mouse Brain Slices

Despite an enormous increase in our knowledge about the mechanisms underlying the encoding of information in the brain, a central question concerning the precise molecular steps as well as the activity of specific neurons in multi-functional nuclei of brain areas such as the hypothalamus remain. This problem includes identification of the molecular components involved in the regulation of various neurohormone signal transduction cascades. Elevations of intracellular Ca2+ play an important role in regulating the sensitivity of neurons, both at the level of signal transduction and at synaptic sites.
New tools have emerged to help identify neurons in the myriad of brain neurons by expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of a particular promoter. To monitor both spatially and temporally stimulus-induced Ca2+ responses in GFP-tagged neurons, a non-green fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye needs to be used. In addition, confocal microscopy is a favorite method of imaging individual neurons in tissue slices due to its ability to visualize neurons in distinct planes of depth within the tissue and to limit out-of-focus fluorescence. The ratiometric Ca2+ indicator fura-2 has been used in combination with GFP-tagged neurons1. However, the dye is excited by ultraviolet (UV) light. The cost of the laser and the limited optical penetration depth of UV light hindered its use in many laboratories. Moreover, GFP fluorescence may interfere with the fura-2 signals2. Therefore, we decided to use a red fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye. The huge Stokes shift of fura-red permits multicolor analysis of the red fluorescence in combination with GFP using a single excitation wavelength. We had previously good results using fura-red in combination with GFP-tagged olfactory neurons3. The protocols for olfactory tissue slices seemed to work equally well in hypothalamic neurons4. Fura-red based Ca2+ imaging was also successfully combined with GFP-tagged pancreatic &beta;-cells and GFP-tagged receptors expressed in HEK cells5,6. A little quirk of fura-red is that its fluorescence intensity at 650 nm decreases once the indicator binds calcium7. Therefore, the fluorescence of resting neurons with low Ca2+ concentration has relatively high intensity. It should be noted, that other red Ca2+-indicator dyes exist or are currently being developed, that might give better or improved results in different neurons and brain areas.

In this protocol, we update recent progress in imaging Ca2+ signals of GFP-tagged neurons in brain tissue slices using a red fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye.

Despite an enormous increase in our knowledge about the mechanisms underlying the encoding of information in the brain, a central question concerning the ...

Preparation of Primary Neurons for Visualizing Neurites in a Frozen-hydrated State Using Cryo-Electron Tomography

Neurites, both dendrites and axons, are neuronal cellular processes that enable the conduction of electrical impulses between neurons. Defining the structure of neurites is critical to understanding how these processes move materials and signals that support synaptic communication. Electron microscopy (EM) has been traditionally used to assess the ultrastructural features within neurites; however, the exposure to organic solvent during dehydration and resin embedding can distort structures. An important unmet goal is the formulation of procedures that allow for structural evaluations not impacted by such artifacts.
Here, we have established a detailed and reproducible protocol for growing and flash-freezing whole neurites of different primary neurons on electron microscopy grids followed by their examination with cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET). This technique allows for 3-D visualization of frozen, hydrated neurites at nanometer resolution, facilitating assessment of their morphological differences. Our protocol yields an unprecedented view of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurites, and a visualization of hippocampal neurites in their near-native state. As such, these methods create a foundation for future studies on neurites of both normal neurons and those impacted by neurological disorders.

To preserve neuronal processes for ultrastructural analysis, we describe a protocol for plating of primary neurons on electron microscopy grids followed by flash freezing, yielding samples suspended in a layer of vitreous ice. These samples can be examined with a cryo-electron microscope to visualize structures at the nanometer scale.

Neurites, both dendrites and axons, are neuronal cellular processes that enable the conduction of electrical impulses between neurons. Defining the ...

Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Calcium Imaging of Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons

Simultaneous electrophysiological and fluorescent imaging recording methods were used to study the role of changes of membrane potential or current in regulating the intracellular calcium concentration. Changing environmental conditions, such as the light-dark cycle, can modify neuronal and neural network activity and the expression of a family of circadian clock genes within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the location of the master circadian clock in the mammalian brain. Excitatory synaptic transmission leads to an increase in the postsynaptic Ca2+ concentration that is believed to activate the signaling pathways that shifts the rhythmic expression of circadian clock genes. Hypothalamic slices containing the SCN were patch clamped using microelectrodes filled with an internal solution containing the calcium indicator bis-fura-2. After a seal was formed between the microelectrode and the SCN neuronal membrane, the membrane was ruptured using gentle suction and the calcium probe diffused into the neuron filling both the soma and dendrites. Quantitative ratiometric measurements of the intracellular calcium concentration were recorded simultaneously with membrane potential or current. Using these methods it is possible to study the role of changes of the intracellular calcium concentration produced by synaptic activity and action potential firing of individual neurons. In this presentation we demonstrate the methods to simultaneously record electrophysiological activity along with intracellular calcium from individual SCN neurons maintained in brain slices.

Procedures are described to perform simultaneous recordings of membrane potential or current and changes of intracellular calcium concentration. Suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons are filled with the calcium indicator bis-fura-2 using a patch clamp electrode in the whole cell patch clamp configuration.

Simultaneous electrophysiological and fluorescent imaging recording methods were used to study the role of changes of membrane potential or current in ...

Calcium Phosphate Transfection of Primary Hippocampal Neurons

Calcium phosphate precipitation is a convenient and economical method for transfection of cultured cells. With optimization, it is possible to use this method on hard-to-transfect cells like primary neurons. Here we describe our detailed protocol for calcium phosphate transfection of hippocampal neurons cocultured with astroglial cells.

Calcium phosphate precipitation is a convenient and economical method for transfection of cultured cells. With optimization, it is possible to use this ...

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized animals. Highly sensitive, genetically encoded fluorescent reporters of Ca2+ have revolutionized the recording of cell and synaptic activity using non-invasive optical approaches in behaving animals. When combined with genetic and optogenetic techniques, the molecular mechanisms that modulate cell and circuit activity during different behavior states can be identified.
Here we describe methods for ratiometric Ca2+ imaging of single neurons in freely behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. We demonstrate a simple mounting technique that gently overlays worms growing on a standard Nematode Growth Media (NGM) agar block with a glass coverslip, permitting animals to be recorded at high-resolution during unrestricted movement and behavior. With this technique, we use the sensitive Ca2+ reporter GCaMP5 to record changes in intracellular Ca2+ in the serotonergic Hermaphrodite Specific Neurons (HSNs) as they drive egg-laying behavior. By co-expressing mCherry, a Ca2+-insensitive fluorescent protein, we can track the position of the HSN within ~ 1 &#181;m and correct for fluctuations in fluorescence caused by changes in focus or movement. Simultaneous, infrared brightfield imaging allows for behavior recording and animal tracking using a motorized stage. By integrating these microscopic techniques and data streams, we can record Ca2+ activity in the C. elegans egg-laying circuit as it progresses between inactive and active behavior states over tens of minutes.

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

This protocol describes the use of genetically encoded Ca2+ reporters to record changes in neural activity in behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. &#8195;

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized ...

Localization of the Locus Coeruleus in the Mouse Brain

The locus coeruleus (LC) is a major hub of norepinephrine producing neurons that modulate a number of physiological functions. Structural or functional abnormalities of LC impact several brain regions including cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum and may contribute to depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, as well as Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease. These disorders are often associated with metal misbalance, but the role of metals in LC is only partially understood. Morphologic and functional studies of LC are needed to better understand the human pathologies and contribution of metals. Mice are a widely used experimental model, but the mouse LC is small (~0.3 mm diameter) and hard to identify for a non-expert. Here, we describe a step-by-step immunohistochemistry-based protocol to localize the LC in the mouse brain. Dopamine-&#946;-hydroxylase (DBH), and alternatively, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), both enzymes highly expressed in the LC, are used as immunohistochemical markers in brain slices. Sections adjacent to LC-containing sections can be used for further analysis, including histology for morphological studies, metabolic testing, as well as metal imaging by X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM).

The locus coeruleus is a small cluster of neurons involved in a variety of physiological processes. Here, we describe a protocol to prepare mouse brain sections for studies of proteins and metals in this nucleus.

The locus coeruleus (LC) is a major hub of norepinephrine producing neurons that modulate a number of physiological functions. Structural or functional ...

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

Inferior olive (IO), a nucleus in the ventral medulla, is the only source of climbing fibers that form one of the two input pathways entering the cerebellum. IO has long been proposed to be crucial for motor control and its activity is currently considered to be at the center of many hypotheses of both motor and cognitive functions of the cerebellum. While its physiology and function have been relatively well studied on single-cell level in vitro, presently there are no reports on the organization of the IO network activity in living animals. This is largely due to the extremely challenging anatomical location of the IO, making it difficult to subject to conventional fluorescent imaging methods, where an optic path must be created through the entire brain located dorsally to the region of interest.
Here we describe an alternative method for obtaining state-of-the-art -level calcium imaging data from the IO network. The method takes advantage of the extreme ventral location of the IO and involves a surgical procedure for inserting a gradient-refractive index (GRIN) lens through the neck viscera to come into contact with the ventral surface of the calcium sensor GCaMP6s-expressing IO in anesthetized mice. A representative calcium imaging recording is shown to demonstrate the feasibility to record IO neuron activity after the surgery. While this is a non-survival surgery and the recordings must be conducted under anesthesia, it avoids damage to life-critical brainstem nuclei and allows conducting large variety of experiments investigating spatiotemporal activity patterns and input integration in the IO. This procedure with modifications could be used for recordings in other, adjacent regions of the ventral brainstem.

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

We present a protocol to expose the brainstem of adult mouse from the ventral side. By using a gradient-refractive index lens with a miniature microscope, calcium imaging can be used to examine the activity of inferior olive neural somata in vivo.