这项工作是由卫生部资助NS-024572（至RSW）美国国家研究院​​的支持。

1，染色制备与体外活体染料<ol><li>对于束带蛇解剖协议见Stewart 等人。5和滕等 6爬虫组织保持生理更长的时间，并且以较少的细菌污染，当在低温下保存（见下文）。哺乳动物组织通常保持在室温或更高。 </li><li>溶酶体活体染料染色，溶解染料在寒冷的爬虫类林格氏液1:5,000（0.2微米）。孵育在4℃下持续15分钟。用冷林格多洗几次。尽快形象。 </li><li>对于FM1-43染色用的KCl刺激，淡化色素在高氯化钾铃声1:500（7微米）。在孵育4℃30-60秒最大。用冷林格快速洗三次，约1分钟/冲洗。尽快形象。 </li><li>为FM1-43染色用高渗（蔗糖）的刺激，淡化色素在如上述的0.5M蔗糖铃声。孵育4＆＃176，C为2-5分钟。用冷水洗涤林格如上面步骤1.3。尽快形象。 </li><li>为FM1-43染色通过电刺激，见滕等 6简要地说，将制剂置于含有生理盐水溶液和染料烹调。神经受到刺激与200微秒矩形脉冲（〜7伏，30赫兹，18微秒）预编程的火车。用冷水洗涤林格如上面步骤1.3。尽快形象。 </li></ol> 2配置准备成像<ol><li>定向制备，使得感兴趣的结构尽可能接近到显微镜物镜。 </li><li>如果倒置显微镜时，利用室，其底部包含了一个薄的圆盖滑。通常，成像室应具有一薄的不锈钢底部用25毫米直径的＃1厚度的玻璃盖玻片在中心。如果一个堂堂正正的显微镜时，不需要底盖玻片，但很有用允许成像透射光（ 如微分干涉相衬，DIC）的定向标本，并找到感兴趣的对象。 </li><li>选择一个合适的目标，以获得尽可能高的3D解决。有折衷的数值孔径（NA），工作距离，放大，和类型的镜头中（干燥的，水和油浸渍）。对于薄筹备样组织文化，石油的目标是最好的。使用直立显微镜，漂浮在水浴盖玻片，并用盖玻片的顶部和物镜之间的浸油。 </li><li>如果反卷积软件使用时，供应商可能对某些目标提供预定的点扩散函数（点扩展函数）。如果没有这样的信息提供，或者如果不支持的客观选择，通过荧光成像网点或类似的衍射极限的物体7,8确定的PSF。 </li></ol> 3，建立场所需的深度和IMA数GES每定时帧期望<ol><li>选择场的总深度，使移动或相互作用的利益结构不消失或不能聚焦，因为他们移动在z方向。在z域应该略微超过该细胞或细胞过程被成像的垂直尺寸。对于脊椎动物电机端子，15-20微米是典型的。 </li><li>计算所需的聚焦的每个增量z轴的步骤。沿z轴的分辨率的变化取决于目标的属性;它是在xy平面上的分辨率的四分之一左右。如果任共焦成像，或解卷积软件被使用时，沿z轴的分辨率得到了改善。提高最终解决方案通过在z方向5深思熟虑过采样，可以参看下面的步骤3.3。一个典型的步进间隔，取值范围从400-1,500 nm的40-100X的目标。灯应每个z步图像之间关门了。 </li><li>选择每个Z-堆栈的图像的数量，即场的所希望的深度除以通过该步骤的时间间隔。的时间来完成的典型的Z-堆栈是1-10秒。快速移动的物体（100纳米/秒）可以出现模糊的3D图像堆栈，因为每个图像平面对应一个稍微不同的时间点。此外，每个额外的图像有助于漂白和光毒性可能（见讨论）。如果上述任何一种情况涉及，选择较大的z步，收集每个堆叠较少的图像。利用图像插值软件（下面的步骤6.3）后补偿。 </li></ol> 4，选择定时帧速率选择通过实验的速度是刚刚足够的顺利解决随时间的变化，如运动，相互作用或融合事件9。根据抽样可以产生运动伪影（抽样误差），而过采样增加不必要的曝光。收集一个单长序列或来自同一制剂中，每个具有相对小的总的时间间隔（几重复序列<eM&gt;例如：10个时间点×30秒的时间间隔= 5分钟）。如果可能的话，请查看准备连续落射荧光照明粗略估计运动速度，包括整个筹备漂移（如果存在）。 5，完成所有实时成像为一个特定的准备爬虫类制剂通常保持强劲的〜1-2小时，更长，如果冷却。 6，分析数据根据所需用途<ol><li>保留所有的原始数据文件。虽然数字存储通常不是一个问题，处理时间更快速的个人计算机或工作站显著。出于这个原因，裁剪图像到感兴趣[ROI]的区域。确保感兴趣的整个区域是在裁剪窗口的整个时间过程中。 </li><li>去卷积图像叠加使用适当的软件和正确的点扩散函数。确认该决议得到改善，并没有神器已经由生成卷积算法。 图3显示了示例图像。 </li><li>使用插值算法，扩大z轴明显的分辨率。 6X的扩张从实际1.5微米图像平面分离到一个明显的0.25微米分离建议。另外，使用过采样的某种组合（步骤3.2）和内插。 </li><li>如果需要进行对比度，亮度，噪声过滤，漂白和其他典型的图像处理的调整。图像处理标准规定，对大多数的科学工作，适当的是相同的修正应用于所有的图像，无论是在一个叠层，并在不同的时间点。一个特定的调整的结果应该所有图片9中进行评估。 </li><li>选择一个特定的显示模式下进行数据的导出。最简单的显示器是使用任一红-绿或红-蓝的anaglyphs（ 图3中的例子），立体声对，或交替的立体视频的左/右击与快门眼镜吨眼帧。的anaglyphs被限制为单一色。如果需要的话，改善Z轴视觉分辨率提高表观图像的深度。 </li><li>尝试各种不同的滤波和图像增强技术。例如，拉普拉斯滤波是有用的，以增加上述背景小的结构的对比。在一个运行的窗口的中心像素的亮度被提高，而周围区域的亮度被降低。请注意，一些过滤方法没有在组合很好地工作。 </li><li>适用漂移校正，如果有该制剂随时间的显着运动。这样的运动是生活中常见的肌肉，即使添加的药物来抑制动作电位和突触电位。像素配准算法（ 例如 ，IMARIS，Adobe后遗症，TurboReg插件ImageJ的）对齐时间推移图像，并能降低，但通常不能完全消除，这种运动。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Frigault, M. M., Lacoste, J., Swift, J. L., Brown, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live-cell+microscopy-tips+and+tools.">Live-cell microscopy-tips and tools.</a> J. Cell Sci. 122 (6), 753-767 (2009).</li><li>Tinevez, J. -. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+quantitative+method+for+measuring+phototoxicity+of+a+live+cell+imaging+microscope.">A quantitative method for measuring phototoxicity of a live cell imaging microscope.</a> Meth. Enzymol. 506, 291-309 (2012).</li><li>Dunn, K. W., Kamocka, M. M., McDonald, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+practical+guide+to+evaluating+colocalization+in+biological+microscopy.">A practical guide to evaluating colocalization in biological microscopy.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 300, (2011).</li><li>Snapp, E. L., Hegde, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rational+design+and+evaluation+of+FRETexperiments+to+measure+proteinproximities+in+cells.">Rational design and evaluation of FRETexperiments to measure proteinproximities in cells.</a> Curr. Protoc. Cell Biol. 17, (2006).</li><li>Stewart, R. S., Teng, H., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Late"+macroendosomes+and+acidic+endosomes+in+vertebrate+motor+nerve+terminals.">Late" macroendosomes and acidic endosomes in vertebrate motor nerve terminals.</a> J. Comp. Neurol. 520, 4275-4293 (2012).</li><li>Teng, H., Lin, M. Y., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macroendocytosis+and+endosome+processing+in+snake+motor+boutons.">Macroendocytosis and endosome processing in snake motor boutons.</a> J. Physiol. 582, 243-262 (2007).</li><li>McNally, J. G., Karpova, T., Cooper, J., Conchello, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+imaging+by+deconvolution+microscopy.">Three-dimensional imaging by deconvolution microscopy.</a> Methods. 19, 373-385 (1999).</li><li>Swedlow, J. R., Platani, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+cell+imaging+using+wide-field+microscopy+and+deconvolution.">Live cell imaging using wide-field microscopy and deconvolution.</a> Cell Struct. Funct. 27, 335-341 (2002).</li><li>Cromey, D. W., Taatjes, D. J., Roth, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Digital+images+are+data:+and+should+be+treated+as+such.">Digital images are data: and should be treated as such.</a> Methods Mol. Biol. 931, 1-27 (2013).</li><li>Teng, H., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clathrin-mediated+endocytosis+near+active+zones+in+snake+motor+terminals.">Clathrin-mediated endocytosis near active zones in snake motor terminals.</a> J. Neurosci. 20 (21), 7986-7993 (2000).</li><li>Teng, H., Cole, J. C., Roberts, R. L., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endocytic+active+zones:+hot+spots+for+endocytosis+in+vertebrate+nerve+terminals.">Endocytic active zones: hot spots for endocytosis in vertebrate nerve terminals.</a> J. Neurosci. 19 (12), 4855-4866 (1999).</li><li>Tan, T. T. T., Khaw, C., Ng, M. M. L., Mendez-Vilas, A., Diaz, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Challenges+and+recent+advances+in+live+cell+bioimaging.">Challenges and recent advances in live cell bioimaging.</a> Microscopy: Science, Technology, Applications and Education. , 1495-1505 (2010).</li><li>Verbrugghe, K. J. C., Chan, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+C.+elegans+embryos+using+an+epifluorescent+microscope+and+open+source+software.">Imaging C. elegans embryos using an epifluorescent microscope and open source software.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (49), (2011).</li></ol>

作者宣称没有竞争的财务权益。

四维成像的最重要方面是光线照射的持续时间和强度的管理。光漂白减小图像信号与噪声的比，并且可以是有问题的或不依赖于多种因素，包括选择的荧光团。到生物体组织（光毒性）的非特异性损伤有关，光漂白，并且有时可以使用为目的而设计2,12或通过检查形态与合适的明场光学，如微分干涉对比（DIC）的荧光探针来识别。 这是可能的，但是，以诱导发生在光?...

活体组织的时间推移成像提供可视化访问动力学结构与功能的关系，不能在成像在单个时间点固定或生活准备将不胜感激。然而，通常的折衷访问的时间信息是在光学分辨率的降低。高数值孔径的油浸目标是因为它们的窄的范围内聚焦的不切实际的活组织，留下水浸泡或干的目标是唯一的选择。此外，通过共聚焦光学系统所带来的增加的分辨率不能被使用在一些生活制剂因光毒性的相对较高水平照明的所需1,2。最后，虽然几个实时或延时的光学技术是可用的提供增强的分辨率，其适用性是有限的制剂，其中感兴趣的结构可以被定位在目标1的几百纳米。中记载的方法使得使用相对低成本的设备，具有通用性，还提供了改进的分辨率相比，更常用的时移技术。它的目的是用于个人实验室以及成像设施。 该方法利用常规落射荧光显微镜，结合一个灵敏的数字照相机和与硬件设计来快速地获得图像集在稍微不同的焦平面（Z-堆栈）。每个z-堆栈数字去卷积，以提高分辨率。三维时间推移（4D）成像的一个特点是移动的细胞器或其他结构的精确跟踪。当正确设置，成像结构不出去的焦点，并在所有三个方向的运动可以观察和量化。因而这是不可能的染色后的结构消失在一个或多个时移的帧仅通过漂流的上方或下方的窄焦平面。该方法也可作为一个敏感的工具，以评估的相互作用和可能的复锡永的小结构。常规落射荧光或接近衍射极限（几百纳米）的结构的共焦图象不确认融合即使合并的图像显示，它们各自的标签3的重叠。融合建议，但它仍然是可能的目的是通过一个距离，该距离低于衍射极限水平或垂直方向分隔开。三或四维成像，相反，允许观看在三个正交方向上的对象。融合在所有三个视图的外观增加了确定性的水平。而且，在一些生活的准备，指挥或推定融合对象的布朗运动提供了进一步的证据时，这两个标签一起移动的时间。当然，当接近衍射极限的确定性在从背景拘泥的结构，或表明它们含有两种染料（融合）的水平，也不是绝对的。如果适用的话，专门技术，如荧光共振能量转移（FRET）4，是比较合适的。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:720px;" width="720">
	<colgroup>
		<col span="4" />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:42px;width:180px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Reagents:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SGC5</td>
			<td>Biotium [Hayward, CA]</td>
			<td>70057</td>
			<td>Final conc:10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FM1-43FX</td>
			<td>Invitrogen [Carlsbad, CA]</td>
			<td>F35335</td>
			<td>Final conc:7 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LysoTracker Red</td>
			<td>Invitrogen [Carlsbad, CA]</td>
			<td>L7528</td>
			<td>Final conc:0.2 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Solutions:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Reptilian Ringers pH 7.2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>145 mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">KCl</td>
			<td>2.5&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td>3.6&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>1.8&#160; mM</td>
			<td style="width:180px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">KH2PO4 (Dibasic)</td>
			<td>1.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>5.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="2" height="20" style="height:21px;">High KCL Reptilian Ringers pH 7.2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>&#160;86&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">KCl</td>
			<td>&#160;60&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td>3.6&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>1.8&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">KH2PO4 (Dibasic)</td>
			<td>1.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>5.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="2" height="20" style="height:21px;">High Sucrose Ringers pH 7.2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>145 mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">KCl</td>
			<td>2. 5 mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td>3.6&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>1.8&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">KH2PO4 (Dibasic)</td>
			<td>1.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>5.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sucrose</td>
			<td>0.5 M (17.1 gm/50 mL)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Equipment:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
			<td>Comments(website)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Axioplan 200 inverted microscope</td>
			<td colspan="2">Carl Zeiss [Thornwood, NY]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.zeiss.com/">www.zeiss.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">N-Achroplan 63X water objective; n.a.=0.9; Working distance=2.4mm&#160;</td>
			<td colspan="2">Carl Zeiss [Thornwood, NY]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.zeiss.com/">www.zeiss.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">DG4 combination light source/excitation filterwheel switcher</td>
			<td>Sutter instruments [Novato, CA]</td>
			<td>175W Xenon arc lamp</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.sutter.com/">www.sutter.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Lambda 10-2&#160; emission filterwheel switcher</td>
			<td colspan="2">Sutter instruments [Novato, CA]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.sutter.com/">www.sutter.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sensicam CCD camera</td>
			<td colspan="2">Cooke Instruments [Tonawanda, NY]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.cookecorp.com/">www.cookecorp.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cascade 512 CCD camera</td>
			<td colspan="2">Photometrics [Tucson, AZ]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.photometrics.com/">www.photometrics.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;">Imaging dishes- made in-house-11cm dia.; 25 mm dia. #1 coverslip embedded; magnetic pins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Software:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
			<td>Comments(website)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Slidebook 5.0</td>
			<td>Intelligent Imaging Innovations [Denver, CO]</td>
			<td>Deconvolution; Drift correction;3D and 4D data presentation</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.intelligent-imaging.com/">www.intelligent-imaging.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">IMARIS 7.5.2</td>
			<td>Bitplane [South Windsor, CT]</td>
			<td>Drift correction; 3D and 4D data presentation</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.bitplane.com/">www.bitplane.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">AfterEffects CS6</td>
			<td>Adobe [San Jose, CA]</td>
			<td>Drift correction</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.adobe.com/">www.adobe.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ImageJ 1.46</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health [Bethesda, MD]</td>
			<td>Multiple plugins available;Stereo pair construction</td>
			<td><a href="http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij">http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Zeiss LSM</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss [Thornwood, NY]</td>
			<td>Stereo pair construction</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.zeiss.com/">www.zeiss.com</a></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualization of endosome dynamics in living nerve terminals with four-dimensional fluorescence imaging

四维（4D）光成像已被用于薄的横运动神经末梢内学习的小结构腹行为的袜带蛇的肌肉。原始数据包括3D Z-堆栈延时序列。每个堆栈包含在由400-1,500 nm的分离焦平面收购与萤光光学4-20图像。在采集图像栈，如调整聚焦的步骤，切换激发波长，并在数码相机的操作，是自动的，尽可能最大化图像率和最小化从光照射的组织损伤。采集后，一组图像栈的去卷积，以提高空间分辨率，转化成所需的3D格式，并用于创建4D“电影”，是适合各种基于计算机的分析，这取决于所寻求的实验数据。一个应用是两个阶级内涵体的神经末梢，macroendosomes发现（MES）的动态行为的研究和酸性核内体（AES），其大小（200-800纳米的两种类型）是在或接近衍射极限。获得在每个时间点的三维信息提供了几个优点优于常规延时成像。特别是，规模和结构的运动速度可以一次进行量化比没有的大家关注的焦点损失。从四维成像数据的例子揭示的ME接近质膜和消失，这表明它们是胞吐而不是简单的垂直移动远离焦点的单个平面上。还透露，是公认的融合的ME和AE的，如通过在三个正交投影观看两个含染料结构之间的重叠可视化。

所示的数据是从蛇神经肌肉端子（参见低和高放大视图在图3中，内吞染料（FM1-43）的吸收产生的雾度，填补各布顿）和，尤其是macroendosomes（MES）和酸性核内体（AES）在这些端子5。 ME的由大容量的内吞作用的神经活动10时创建的，其数量随时间呈指数下降后的活动已经停止6。利用四维实时成像是确定的ME走向质膜和迅速消失，这表明他们的号码，因为他们中?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization of Endosome Dynamics in Living Nerve Terminals with Four-dimensional Fluorescence Imaging at JoVE.com

Visualization of Endosome Dynamics in Living Nerve Terminals with Four-dimensional Fluorescence Imaging

四维（4D）成像被用于研究中两种类型的核内体的活的脊椎动物神经终端的行为和交互作用。这些小的结构的运动的特征是在三维空间中，从而允许确认如内涵体融合和胞吐作用的事件。

内吞体动力学在生活神经末梢与四维荧光成像可视化

Four-dimensional (4D) light imaging has been used to study behavior of small structures within motor nerve terminals of the thin transversus abdominis ...

visualization-endosome-dynamics-living-nerve-terminals-with-four

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

8.9K 次观看.  Washington University School of Medicine. 四维（4D）成像被用于研究中两种类型的核内体的活的脊椎动物神经终端的行为和交互作用。这些小的结构的运动的特征是在三维空间中，从而允许确认如内涵体融合和胞吐作用的事件。 

视频: Visualization of Endosome Dynamics in Living Nerve Terminals with Four-dimensional Fluorescence Imaging

Preparation of Living Isolated Vertebrate Photoreceptor Cells for Fluorescence Imaging

In the vertebrate retina, phototransduction, the conversion of light to an electrical signal, is carried out by the rod and cone photoreceptor cells1-4. Rod photoreceptors are responsible for vision in dim light, cones in bright light. Phototransduction takes place in the outer segment of the photoreceptor cell, a specialized compartment that contains a high concentration of visual pigment, the primary light detector. The visual pigment is composed of a chromophore, 11-cis retinal, attached to a protein, opsin. A photon absorbed by the visual pigment isomerizes the chromophore from 11-cis to all-trans. This photoisomerization brings about a conformational change in the visual pigment that 
initiates a cascade of reactions culminating in a change in membrane potential, and bringing about the transduction of the light stimulus to an electrical signal. The 
recovery of the cell from light stimulation involves the deactivation of the intermediates activated by light, and the reestablishment of the membrane potential. Ca2+ modulates the activity of several of the enzymes involved in phototransduction, and its concentration is reduced upon light stimulation. In this way, Ca2+ plays an important role in the recovery of the cell from light stimulation and its adaptation to background light.
Another essential part of the recovery process is the regeneration of the visual pigment that has been destroyed during light-detection by the 
photoisomerization of its 11-cis chromophore to all-trans5-7. This regeneration begins with the release of all-trans retinal by 
the photoactivated pigment, leaving behind the apo-protein opsin. The released all-trans retinal is rapidly reduced in a reaction utilizing NADPH to all-
trans retinol, and opsin combines with fresh 11-cis retinal brought into the outer segment to reform the visual pigment. All-trans retinol is 
then transferred out of the outer segment and into neighboring cells by the specialized carrier Interphotoreceptor Retinoid Binding Protein (IRBP).
Fluorescence imaging of single photoreceptor cells can be used to study their physiology and cell biology. Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent dyes can be used to examine in detail the interplay between outer 
segment Ca2+ changes and response to light8-12 as well as the role of inner segment Ca2+ stores in Ca2+ homeostasis13,14. 
Fluorescent dyes can also be used for measuring Mg2+ concentration15, pH, and as tracers of aqueous and membrane compartments16. 
Finally, the intrinsic fluorescence of all-trans retinol (vitamin A) can be used to monitor the kinetics of its formation and removal in single 
photoreceptor cells17-19.

A method is described for the preparation of single living photoreceptor cells from different vertebrate species for fluorescence imaging. The method can be used to image the fluorescence of endogenous fluorophores, such as NADH or vitamin A, or that of exogenously added fluorescent dyes sensitive to Ca2+ or other factors.

生活荧光成像的隔离脊椎动物的感光细胞的制备

In the vertebrate retina, phototransduction, the conversion of light to an electrical signal, is carried out by the rod and cone photoreceptor cells1-4.  ...

科研

神经科学

Patch-clamp Capacitance Measurements and Ca2+ Imaging at Single Nerve Terminals in Retinal Slices

Visual stimuli are detected and conveyed over a wide dynamic range of light intensities and frequency changes by specialized neurons in the vertebrate retina. Two classes of retinal neurons, photoreceptors and bipolar cells, accomplish this by using ribbon-type active zones, which enable sustained and high-throughput neurotransmitter release over long time periods. ON-type mixed bipolar cell (Mb) terminals in the goldfish retina, which depolarize to light stimuli and receive mixed rod and cone photoreceptor input, are suitable for the study of ribbon-type synapses both due to their large size (~10-12 &mu;m diameter) and to their numerous lateral and reciprocal synaptic connections with amacrine cell dendrites. Direct access to Mb bipolar cell terminals in goldfish retinal slices with the patch-clamp technique allows the measurement of presynaptic Ca2+ currents, membrane capacitance changes, and reciprocal synaptic feedback inhibition mediated by GABAA and GABAC receptors expressed on the terminals. Presynaptic membrane capacitance measurements of exocytosis allow one to study the short-term plasticity of excitatory neurotransmitter release 14,15. In addition, short-term and long-term plasticity of inhibitory neurotransmitter release from amacrine cells can also be investigated by recordings of reciprocal feedback inhibition arriving at the Mb terminal 21. Over short periods of time (e.g. ~10 s), GABAergic reciprocal feedback inhibition from amacrine cells undergoes paired-pulse depression via GABA vesicle pool depletion 11. The synaptic dynamics of retinal microcircuits in the inner plexiform layer of the retina can thus be directly studied.
The brain-slice technique was introduced more than 40 years ago but is still very useful for the investigation of the electrical properties of neurons, both at the single cell soma, single dendrite or axon, and microcircuit synaptic level 19. Tissues that are too small to be glued directly onto the slicing chamber are often first embedded in agar (or placed onto a filter paper) and then sliced 20, 23, 18, 9. In this video, we employ the pre-embedding agar technique using goldfish retina. Some of the giant bipolar cell terminals in our slices of goldfish retina are axotomized (axon-cut) during the slicing procedure. This allows us to isolate single presynaptic nerve terminal inputs, because recording from axotomized terminals excludes the signals from the soma-dendritic compartment. Alternatively, one can also record from intact Mb bipolar cells, by recording from terminals attached to axons that have not been cut during the slicing procedure. Overall, use of this experimental protocol will aid in studies of retinal synaptic physiology, microcircuit functional analysis, and synaptic transmission at ribbon synapses.

Patch-clamp Capacitance Measurements and Ca2+ Imaging at Single Nerve Terminals in Retinal Slices

Here we describe a protocol for the preparation of agar-embedded retinal slices that are suitable for electrophysiology and Ca2+ imaging. This method allows one to study ribbon-type synapses in retinal microcircuits using direct patch-clamp recordings of single presynaptic nerve terminals.

膜片钳电容测量和Ca 2 +单神经末梢成像在视网膜切片

Visual stimuli are detected and conveyed over a wide dynamic range of light intensities and frequency changes by specialized neurons in the vertebrate ...

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

可视化本体感受器<em&gt;果蝇</em&gt;幼虫和蛹

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Deep Brain Stimulation with Simultaneous fMRI in Rodents

In order to visualize the global and downstream neuronal responses to deep brain stimulation (DBS) at various targets, we have developed a protocol for using blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to image rodents with simultaneous DBS. DBS fMRI presents a number of technical challenges, including accuracy of electrode implantation, MR artifacts created by the electrode, choice of anesthesia and paralytic to minimize any neuronal effects while simultaneously eliminating animal motion, and maintenance of physiological parameters, deviation from which can confound the BOLD signal.&#160;Our laboratory has developed a set of procedures that are capable of overcoming most of these possible issues. For electrical stimulation, a homemade tungsten bipolar microelectrode is used, inserted stereotactically at the stimulation site in the anesthetized subject. In preparation for imaging, rodents are fixed on a plastic headpiece and transferred to the magnet bore. For sedation and paralysis during scanning, a cocktail of dexmedetomidine and pancuronium is continuously infused, along with a minimal dose of isoflurane; this preparation minimizes the BOLD ceiling effect of volatile anesthetics. In this example experiment, stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) produces BOLD responses which are observed primarily in ipsilateral cortical regions, centered in motor cortex. Simultaneous DBS and fMRI allows the unambiguous modulation of neural circuits dependent on stimulation location and stimulation parameters, and permits observation of neuronal modulations free of regional bias. This technique may be used to explore the downstream effects of modulating neural circuitry at nearly any brain region, with implications for both experimental and clinical DBS.

This protocol describes a standard method for simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging and deep brain stimulation in the rodent. The combined use of these experimental tools allows for the exploration of global downstream activity in response to electrical stimulation at virtually any brain target.

深部脑刺激与同步功能磁共振成像在鼠害

In order to visualize the global and downstream neuronal responses to deep brain stimulation (DBS) at various targets, we have developed a protocol for ...

In vivo Imaging of Optic Nerve Fiber Integrity by Contrast-Enhanced MRI in Mice

The rodent visual system encompasses retinal ganglion cells and their axons that form the optic nerve to enter thalamic and midbrain centers, and postsynaptic projections to the visual cortex. Based on its distinct anatomical structure and convenient accessibility, it has become the favored structure for studies on neuronal survival, axonal regeneration, and synaptic plasticity. Recent advancements in MR imaging have enabled the in vivo visualization of the retino-tectal part of this projection using manganese mediated contrast enhancement (MEMRI). Here, we present a MEMRI protocol for illustration of the visual projection in mice, by which resolutions of (200 &#181;m)3 can be achieved using common 3 Tesla scanners. We demonstrate how intravitreal injection of a single dosage of 15 nmol MnCl2 leads to a saturated enhancement of the intact projection within 24 hr. With exception of the retina, changes in signal intensity are independent of coincided visual stimulation or physiological aging. We further apply this technique to longitudinally monitor axonal degeneration in response to acute optic nerve injury, a paradigm by which Mn2+ transport completely arrests at the lesion site. Conversely, active Mn2+ transport is quantitatively proportionate to the viability, number, and electrical activity of axon fibers. For such an analysis, we exemplify Mn2+ transport kinetics along the visual path in a transgenic mouse model (NF-&#954;B p50KO) displaying spontaneous atrophy of sensory, including visual, projections. In these mice, MEMRI indicates reduced but not delayed Mn2+ transport as compared to wild type mice, thus revealing signs of structural and/or functional impairments by NF-&#954;B mutations.
In summary, MEMRI conveniently bridges in vivo assays and post mortem histology for the characterization of nerve fiber integrity and activity. It is highly useful for longitudinal studies on axonal degeneration and regeneration, and investigations of mutant mice for genuine or inducible phenotypes.

In vivo Imaging of Optic Nerve Fiber Integrity by Contrast-Enhanced MRI in Mice

This video illustrates a method, using a clinical 3 T scanner, for contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the na&#239;ve mouse visual projection and for repetitive and longitudinal in vivo studies of optic nerve degeneration associated with acute optic nerve crush injury and chronic optic nerve degeneration in knock-out mice (p50KO).

在视神经纤维通过诚信小鼠对比增强MRI 活体成像

The rodent visual system encompasses retinal ganglion cells and their axons that form the optic nerve to enter thalamic and midbrain centers, and ...

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to blindness in many retinal diseases. Calcium (Ca2+), a key second messenger in photoreceptor signaling and metabolism, has been proposed to be indirectly linked with photoreceptor degeneration in various animal models. Systematically studying these aspects of cone physiology and pathophysiology has been hampered by the difficulties of electrically recording from these small cells, in particular in the mouse where the retina is dominated by rod photoreceptors. To circumvent this issue, we established a two-photon Ca2+ imaging protocol using a transgenic mouse line that expresses the genetically encoded Ca2+ biosensor TN-XL exclusively in cones and can be crossbred with mouse models for photoreceptor degeneration. The protocol described here involves preparing vertical sections (&#8220;slices&#8221;) of retinas from mice and optical imaging of light stimulus-evoked changes in cone Ca2+ level. The protocol also allows &#8220;in-slice measurement&#8221; of absolute Ca2+ concentrations; as the recordings can be followed by calibration. This protocol enables studies into functional cone properties and is expected to contribute to the understanding of cone Ca2+ signaling as well as the potential involvement of Ca2+ in photoreceptor death and retinal degeneration.

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

We describe a protocol to monitor Ca2+ dynamics in the axon terminals of cone photoreceptors using an ex-vivo&#160;slice preparation of the mouse retina. This protocol allows comprehensive studies of cone Ca2+ signaling in an important mammalian model system, the mouse.

成像钙<sup&gt; 2+</sup&gt;在小鼠视网膜锥光感受器轴突终末动态

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to ...

Optical Monitoring of Living Nerve Terminal Labeling in Hair Follicle Lanceolate Endings of the Ex Vivo Mouse Ear Skin

A novel dissection and recording technique is described for optical monitoring staining and de-staining of lanceolate terminals surrounding hair follicles in the skin of the mouse pinna. The preparation is simple and relatively fast, reliably yielding extensive regions of multiple labeled units of living nerve terminals to study uptake and release of styryl pyridinium dyes extensively used in studies of vesicle recycling. Subdividing the preparations before labeling allows test vs. control comparisons in the same ear from a single individual. Helpful tips are given for improving the quality of the preparation, the labeling and the imaging parameters. This new system is suitable for assaying pharmacologically and mechanically-induced uptake and release of these vital dyes in lanceolate terminals in both wild-type and genetically modified animals. Examples of modulatory influences on labeling intensity are given.

Optical Monitoring of Living Nerve Terminal Labeling in Hair Follicle Lanceolate Endings of the Ex Vivo Mouse Ear Skin

Here we describe a novel preparation for imaging live lanceolate sensory terminals of palisade endings that innervate mouse ear skin hair follicles during staining and destaining with styryl pyridinium dyes.

在毛囊披针形结局生活神经末端标记的光学监测<em&gt;离体</em&gt;鼠耳皮肤

A novel dissection and recording technique is described for optical monitoring staining and de-staining of lanceolate terminals surrounding hair follicles ...

Quantification of Endosome and Lysosome Motilities in Cultured Neurons Using Fluorescent Probes

In the brain, membrane trafficking systems play important roles in regulating neuronal functions, such as neuronal morphology, synaptic plasticity, survival, and glial communications. To date, numerous studies have reported that defects in these systems cause various neuronal diseases. Thus, understanding the mechanisms underlying vesicle dynamics may provide influential clues that could aid in the treatment of several neuronal disorders. Here, we describe a method for quantifying vesicle motilities, such as motility distance and rate of movement, using a software plug-in for the ImageJ platform. To obtain images for quantification, we labeled neuronal endosome-lysosome structures with EGFP-tagged vesicle marker proteins and observed the movement of vesicles using a time-lapse microscopy. This method is highly useful and simplify measuring vesicle motility in neurites, such as axons and dendrites, as well as in the soma of both neurons and glial cells. Furthermore, this method can be applied to other cell lines, such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells. This approach could provide a valuable advancement of our understanding of membrane trafficking.

The investigation of membrane trafficking is crucial for understanding neuronal functions. Here, we introduce a method for quantifying vesicle motility in neurons. This is a convenient method that can be adapted to the quantification of membrane trafficking in the nervous system.

使用荧光探针定量培养的神经元中的内体和溶酶体运动

In the brain, membrane trafficking systems play important roles in regulating neuronal functions, such as neuronal morphology, synaptic plasticity, ...

Visualization of Amyloid &#946; Deposits in the Human Brain with Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Imaging Mass Spectrometry

The neuropathology of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation and aggregation of amyloid &#946; (A&#946;) peptides into extracellular plaques of the brain. The A&#946; peptides, composed of 40 amino acids, are generated from amyloid precursor proteins (APP) by &#946;- and &#947;-secretases. A&#946; is deposited not only in cerebral parenchyma but also in leptomeningeal and cerebral vessel walls, known as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). While a variety of A&#946; peptides were identified, the detailed production and distribution of individual A&#946; peptides in pathological tissues of AD and CAA have not been fully addressed. Here, we develop a protocol of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-based imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI-IMS) on human autopsy brain tissues to obtain comprehensive protein mapping. For this purpose, human cortical specimens were obtained from the Brain Bank at the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology. Frozen cryosections are cut and transferred to indium-tin-oxide (ITO)-coated glass slides. Spectra are acquired using the MALDI system with a spatial resolution up to 20 &#181;m. Sinapinic acid (SA) is uniformly deposited on the slide using either an automatic or a manual sprayer. With the current technical advantages of MALDI-IMS, a typical data set of various A&#946; species within the same sections of human autopsied brains can be obtained without specific probes. Furthermore, high-resolution (20 &#181;m) imaging of an AD brain and severe CAA sample clearly shows that A&#946;1-36 to A&#946;1-41 were deposited into leptomeningeal vessels, while A&#946;1-42 and A&#946;1-43 were deposited in cerebral parenchyma as senile plaque (SP). It is feasible to adopt MALDI-IMS as a standard approach in combination with clinical, genetic, and pathological observations in understanding the pathology of AD, CAA, and other neurological diseases based on the current strategy.

Visualization of Amyloid &amp;#946; Deposits in the Human Brain with Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Imaging Mass Spectrometry

Molecular imaging with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-based imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI-IMS) allows the simultaneous mapping of multiple analytes in biological samples. Here, we present a protocol for the detection and visualization of amyloid &#946; protein on brain tissues of Alzheimer&#39;s disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy samples using MALDI-IMS.

矩阵辅助激光去离子成像质谱法显示人脑中的淀粉样β矿床

The neuropathology of Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation and aggregation of amyloid &#946; (A&#946;) peptides into ...

Preparation of Newborn Rat Brain Tissue for Ultrastructural Morphometric Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Distribution at Nerve Terminals

Our laboratory and many others have exploited the high resolving power of transmission electron microscopy to study the morphology and spatial organization of synaptic vesicles. In order to obtain high-quality electron micrographs that can yield the degree of morphological detail necessary for quantitative analysis of pre-synaptic vesicle distribution, optimal specimen preparation is critical. Chemical fixation is the first step in the process of specimen preparation, and of utmost importance to preserve fine ultrastructure. Vascular fixation with a glutaraldehyde-formaldehyde solution, followed by treatment of vibratome-sectioned specimens with osmium tetroxide, stabilizes the maximum number of molecules, especially proteins and lipids, and results in superior conservation of ultrastructure. Tissue is then processed with counterstaining, sequential dehydration and resin-embedding. En bloc staining with uranyl acetate (i.e., staining of vibratome-sectioned tissue before resin embedding) enhances endogenous contrast and stabilizes cell components against extraction during specimen processing. Contrast can be further increased by applying uranyl acetate as a post-stain on ultrathin sections. Double-staining of ultrathin sections with lead citrate after uranyl acetate treatment also improves image resolution, by intensifying electron-opacity of nucleic acid-containing structures through selective binding of lead to uranyl acetate. Transmission electron microscopy is a powerful tool for characterization of the morphological details of synaptic vesicles and quantification of their size and spatial organization in the terminal bouton. However, because it uses fixed tissue, transmission electron microscopy can only provide indirect information regarding living or evolving processes. Therefore, other techniques should be considered when the main objective is to study dynamic or functional aspects of synaptic vesicle trafficking and exocytosis.

We describe procedures for processing newborn rat brain tissue to obtain high-resolution electron micrographs for morphometric analysis of synaptic vesicle distribution at nerve terminals. The micrographs obtained with these methods can also be used to study the morphology of a number of other cellular components and their dimensional structural relationships.