This work was supported by the U.S. National Institutes of Health Grant NS-024572 (to R.S.W.).

1. Stain the Preparation with Supravital Dyes
<ol>
	<li>For the garter snake dissection protocol see Stewart et al.5 and Teng et al.6 Reptilian tissue remains physiological for longer times, and with less bacterial contamination, when kept at low temperatures (see below). Mammalian tissue is usually maintained at room temperature or higher.</li>
	<li>For lysosomal vital dye staining, dissolve the dye in cold reptilian Ringers solution 1:5,000 (0.2 &#956;M). Incubate at 4 &#176;C ...

<ol>
	<li>Frigault, M. M., Lacoste, J., Swift, J. L., Brown, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live-cell+microscopy-tips+and+tools.">Live-cell microscopy-tips and tools.</a> J. Cell Sci. 122 (6), 753-767 (2009).</li><li>Tinevez, J. -. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+quantitative+method+for+measuring+phototoxicity+of+a+live+cell+imaging+microscope.">A quantitative method for measuring phototoxicity of a live cell imaging microscope.</a> Meth. Enzymol. 506, 291-309 (2012).</li><li>Dunn, K. W., Kamocka, M. M., McDonald, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+practical+guide+to+evaluating+colocalization+in+biological+microscopy.">A practical guide to evaluating colocalization in biological microscopy.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 300, (2011).</li><li>Snapp, E. L., Hegde, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rational+design+and+evaluation+of+FRETexperiments+to+measure+proteinproximities+in+cells.">Rational design and evaluation of FRETexperiments to measure proteinproximities in cells.</a> Curr. Protoc. Cell Biol. 17, (2006).</li><li>Stewart, R. S., Teng, H., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Late"+macroendosomes+and+acidic+endosomes+in+vertebrate+motor+nerve+terminals.">Late" macroendosomes and acidic endosomes in vertebrate motor nerve terminals.</a> J. Comp. Neurol. 520, 4275-4293 (2012).</li><li>Teng, H., Lin, M. Y., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macroendocytosis+and+endosome+processing+in+snake+motor+boutons.">Macroendocytosis and endosome processing in snake motor boutons.</a> J. Physiol. 582, 243-262 (2007).</li><li>McNally, J. G., Karpova, T., Cooper, J., Conchello, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+imaging+by+deconvolution+microscopy.">Three-dimensional imaging by deconvolution microscopy.</a> Methods. 19, 373-385 (1999).</li><li>Swedlow, J. R., Platani, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+cell+imaging+using+wide-field+microscopy+and+deconvolution.">Live cell imaging using wide-field microscopy and deconvolution.</a> Cell Struct. Funct. 27, 335-341 (2002).</li><li>Cromey, D. W., Taatjes, D. J., Roth, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Digital+images+are+data:+and+should+be+treated+as+such.">Digital images are data: and should be treated as such.</a> Methods Mol. Biol. 931, 1-27 (2013).</li><li>Teng, H., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clathrin-mediated+endocytosis+near+active+zones+in+snake+motor+terminals.">Clathrin-mediated endocytosis near active zones in snake motor terminals.</a> J. Neurosci. 20 (21), 7986-7993 (2000).</li><li>Teng, H., Cole, J. C., Roberts, R. L., Wilkinson, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endocytic+active+zones:+hot+spots+for+endocytosis+in+vertebrate+nerve+terminals.">Endocytic active zones: hot spots for endocytosis in vertebrate nerve terminals.</a> J. Neurosci. 19 (12), 4855-4866 (1999).</li><li>Tan, T. T. T., Khaw, C., Ng, M. M. L., Mendez-Vilas, A., Diaz, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Challenges+and+recent+advances+in+live+cell+bioimaging.">Challenges and recent advances in live cell bioimaging.</a> Microscopy: Science, Technology, Applications and Education. , 1495-1505 (2010).</li><li>Verbrugghe, K. J. C., Chan, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+C.+elegans+embryos+using+an+epifluorescent+microscope+and+open+source+software.">Imaging C. elegans embryos using an epifluorescent microscope and open source software.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (49), (2011).</li></ol>

The most critical aspect of 4D imaging is management of the duration and intensity of light exposure. Photobleaching decreases image signal-to-noise ratio and can be problematic or not depending on various factors, including choice of fluorophores. Nonspecific damage to living tissue (phototoxicity) is related to photobleaching, and can sometimes be identified using fluorescent probes designed for the purpose2,12 or by examination of morphology with suitable brightfield optics, such as differential interferenc...

Time-lapse imaging of living tissue provides visual access to dynamical structure-function relations that cannot be appreciated in fixed or living preparations imaged at a single point in time. Often, however, the tradeoff for access to temporal information is a decrease in optical resolution. High numerical aperture oil-immersion objectives are impractical in living tissue because of their narrow range of focus, leaving water immersion or dry objectives as the only alternatives. Moreover, the increased resolution afforded by confocal optics cannot be utilized in some living preparations due to phototoxicity from the relatively high levels of illumination required1,2. Lastly, while several real-time or time-lapse optical techniques are available that offer enhanced resolution, their applicability is limited to preparations where structures of interest can be positioned within a few hundred nanometers of the objective1. The method described makes use of relatively low-cost equipment, is versatile, yet offers improved resolution compared to more commonly-used time-lapse techniques. It is intended for use in individual laboratories as well as imaging facilities.
The method utilizes conventional epifluorescence microscopy, combined with a sensitive digital camera and with hardware designed to rapidly acquire sets of images at slightly different focal planes (z-stacks). Each z-stack is digitally deconvolved to increase resolution. One feature of 3D time-lapse (4D) imaging is precise tracking of moving organelles or other structures. When properly set up, imaged structures do not go out of focus, and movement in all three directions can be observed and quantified. Thus it is impossible for a stained structure to disappear over one or more time-lapse frames merely by drifting above or below a narrow focal plane. The method also serves as a sensitive tool for assessing the interactions and possible fusion of small structures. Conventional epifluorescence or confocal images of structures near the diffraction limit (a few hundred nm) do not confirm fusion even if merged images show overlap of their respective labels3. Fusion is suggested, but it remains possible that the objects are separated horizontally or vertically by a distance that is below the diffraction limit. Three- or four-dimensional imaging, in contrast, permits viewing the objects in each of three orthogonal directions. The appearance of fusion in all three views increases the level of certainty. And, in some living preparations, directed or Brownian movement of putatively fused objects provides further proof when both labels move together in time. Of course, when near the diffraction limit the level of certainty in discerning structures from background, or showing that they contain two dyes (fusion), is not absolute. If applicable, specialized techniques, such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)4, are more appropriate.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:720px;" width="720">
	<colgroup>
		<col span="4" />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:42px;width:180px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:180px;">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Reagents:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SGC5</td>
			<td>Biotium [Hayward, CA]</td>
			<td>70057</td>
			<td>Final conc:10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">FM1-43FX</td>
			<td>Invitrogen [Carlsbad, CA]</td>
			<td>F35335</td>
			<td>Final conc:7 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LysoTracker Red</td>
			<td>Invitrogen [Carlsbad, CA]</td>
			<td>L7528</td>
			<td>Final conc:0.2 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Solutions:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Reptilian Ringers pH 7.2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>145 mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">KCl</td>
			<td>2.5&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td>3.6&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>1.8&#160; mM</td>
			<td style="width:180px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">KH2PO4 (Dibasic)</td>
			<td>1.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>5.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="2" height="20" style="height:21px;">High KCL Reptilian Ringers pH 7.2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>&#160;86&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">KCl</td>
			<td>&#160;60&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td>3.6&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>1.8&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">KH2PO4 (Dibasic)</td>
			<td>1.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>5.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="2" height="20" style="height:21px;">High Sucrose Ringers pH 7.2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NaCl</td>
			<td>145 mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">KCl</td>
			<td>2. 5 mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td>3.6&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">MgSO4</td>
			<td>1.8&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;">KH2PO4 (Dibasic)</td>
			<td>1.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>5.0&#160; mM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sucrose</td>
			<td>0.5 M (17.1 gm/50 mL)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Equipment:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
			<td>Comments(website)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Axioplan 200 inverted microscope</td>
			<td colspan="2">Carl Zeiss [Thornwood, NY]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.zeiss.com/">www.zeiss.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">N-Achroplan 63X water objective; n.a.=0.9; Working distance=2.4mm&#160;</td>
			<td colspan="2">Carl Zeiss [Thornwood, NY]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.zeiss.com/">www.zeiss.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">DG4 combination light source/excitation filterwheel switcher</td>
			<td>Sutter instruments [Novato, CA]</td>
			<td>175W Xenon arc lamp</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.sutter.com/">www.sutter.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:21px;">Lambda 10-2&#160; emission filterwheel switcher</td>
			<td colspan="2">Sutter instruments [Novato, CA]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.sutter.com/">www.sutter.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sensicam CCD camera</td>
			<td colspan="2">Cooke Instruments [Tonawanda, NY]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.cookecorp.com/">www.cookecorp.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cascade 512 CCD camera</td>
			<td colspan="2">Photometrics [Tucson, AZ]</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.photometrics.com/">www.photometrics.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td colspan="4" height="20" style="height:20px;">Imaging dishes- made in-house-11cm dia.; 25 mm dia. #1 coverslip embedded; magnetic pins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Software:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
			<td>Comments(website)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Slidebook 5.0</td>
			<td>Intelligent Imaging Innovations [Denver, CO]</td>
			<td>Deconvolution; Drift correction;3D and 4D data presentation</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.intelligent-imaging.com/">www.intelligent-imaging.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">IMARIS 7.5.2</td>
			<td>Bitplane [South Windsor, CT]</td>
			<td>Drift correction; 3D and 4D data presentation</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.bitplane.com/">www.bitplane.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">AfterEffects CS6</td>
			<td>Adobe [San Jose, CA]</td>
			<td>Drift correction</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.adobe.com/">www.adobe.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ImageJ 1.46</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health [Bethesda, MD]</td>
			<td>Multiple plugins available;Stereo pair construction</td>
			<td><a href="http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij">http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Zeiss LSM</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss [Thornwood, NY]</td>
			<td>Stereo pair construction</td>
			<td><a href="http://www.zeiss.com/">www.zeiss.com</a></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualization of endosome dynamics in living nerve terminals with four-dimensional fluorescence imaging

Four-dimensional (4D) light imaging has been used to study behavior of small structures within motor nerve terminals of the thin transversus abdominis muscle of the garter snake. Raw data comprises time-lapse sequences of 3D z-stacks. Each stack contains 4-20 images acquired with epifluorescence optics at focal planes separated by 400-1,500 nm. Steps in the acquisition of image stacks, such as adjustment of focus, switching of excitation wavelengths, and operation of the digital camera, are automated as much as possible to maximize image rate and minimize tissue damage from light exposure. After acquisition, a set of image stacks is deconvolved to improve spatial resolution, converted to the desired 3D format, and used to create a 4D "movie" that is suitable for variety of computer-based analyses, depending upon the experimental data sought. One application is study of the dynamic behavior of two classes of endosomes found in nerve terminals-macroendosomes (MEs) and acidic endosomes (AEs)-whose sizes (200-800 nm for both types) are at or near the diffraction limit. Access to 3D information at each time point provides several advantages over conventional time-lapse imaging. In particular, size and velocity of movement of structures can be quantified over time without loss of sharp focus. Examples of data from 4D imaging reveal that MEs approach the plasma membrane and disappear, suggesting that they are exocytosed rather than simply moving vertically away from a single plane of focus. Also revealed is putative fusion of MEs and AEs, by visualization of overlap between the two dye-containing structures as viewed in each three orthogonal projections.

Data shown are from snake neuromuscular terminals (see low and high magnification views in Figure 3; the endocytic dye (FM1-43) uptake creates a haze that fills each bouton) and, in particular, macroendosomes (MEs) and acidic endosomes (AEs) within these terminals5. MEs are created by bulk endocytosis during neural activity10 and their number declines exponentially with time after activity has ceased6. Use of 4D live imaging was to determine if MEs move towards the plasma...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization of Endosome Dynamics in Living Nerve Terminals with Four-dimensional Fluorescence Imaging at JoVE.com

Visualization of Endosome Dynamics in Living Nerve Terminals with Four-dimensional Fluorescence Imaging

Four-dimensional (4D) imaging is utilized to study the behavior and interactions among two types of endosomes in living vertebrate nerve terminals. Movement of these small structures is characterized in three dimensions, permitting confirmation of events such as endosome fusion and exocytosis.

Four-dimensional (4D) light imaging has been used to study behavior of small structures within motor nerve terminals of the thin transversus abdominis ...

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Neuroscience

8.9K 次观看.  Washington University School of Medicine. 四维（4D）成像被用于研究中两种类型的核内体的活的脊椎动物神经终端的行为和交互作用。这些小的结构的运动的特征是在三维空间中，从而允许确认如内涵体融合和胞吐作用的事件。 