作者没有确认或财务披露。

确保每个病人的适用性研究性学习回顾和合适的患者必须同意参加根据当地IRB程序的研究。 1.患者选择SEEG与研究<ol><li>患者选择SEEG 注意：癫痫病人必须由多学科团队组成的癫痫病，神经心理学家和神经外科医生进行临床评估。 <ol><li>确保患者具有难治局灶性癫痫，定义为不到的抗癫痫药物至少2充分试验反应。 </li><li>确保非侵入性技术未能本地化的致痫灶。 </li><li>确认的多学科团队该患者不适合于只能与硬膜下栅极调查。 </li><li>确认与多学科的团队，有一个深刻的癫痫发作区的临床怀疑。 </li></ol></li> &lt;LI&gt;患者选择的研究课题<ol><li>确保主体是13到65岁之间。 </li><li> （如果有18岁以下的父母同意在一起）从患者获得同意或同意。 </li><li>确保受试者能够参加的任务，并与测试合作。 </li></ol></li></ol> 2.准备和植入技术<ol><li>术前进行容积T2和对比度增强容积T1 MRI和图像传输到立体定向导航软件，根据制造商的协议。 <ol><li>计划基础上，MRI和扣押灶的临床怀疑深度极的目标。 注意：提供的实施例是基于博医导航软件，因而特定于该系统。然而，任何立体定向导航软件可以用来计划深度电极轨迹和位置。 </li><li>定义感兴趣的解剖区域在立体定向导航软件的“立体定向规划”功能中的目标点。 </li><li>例如，使用DACC作为感兴趣目标。要定义它的轨迹，按“新轨迹”，然后按“目标”，然后单击DACC。通过检查DACC在所有3个平面（轴向，冠状和矢状），并点击DACC在每个平面上的中间居中在DACC的中间目标。 <ol><li>限定在立体定向导航软件的“立体定向规划”函数内头皮上的入口点。 </li></ol></li><li>例如，选择上，似乎是最短路径DACC头皮的一个点。按“进入”，并选择在头皮上的点，以使该入口点。 </li><li>单击并拖动“目标”和“项”点修改定义轨迹，以避免皮层和皮层下血管结构以及任何潜在的雄辩CErebral地区。 </li><li>重复所有计划中深部电极目标（ 图1）。 </li><li>承认在手术日上午病人，带来了手术室，并在全身麻醉下26,27引起。 </li><li>附加Cosman - 罗伯茨井（CRW）立体定向井架患者的头颅骨螺钉。 </li><li>获得容积CT，在地方井架。 </li><li>通过“加载和导入”功能，装载容积CT和MRI影像到立体定向导航软件。 </li><li>点击立体定向导航软件中的“本土化”的功能。 </li><li>本地化CRW井架通过点击全部由立体定向导航软件作为包含井架，然后按下“分配航向”按钮定义的图像。 </li><li>点击立体定向导航软件中的“AC / PC本土化”功能。 </li><li> IDentify基于其解剖学位置的前部和后部连合。 </li><li>经由立体定向导航软件中的“设置AC / PC系统”功能指定的前部和后部连合。 </li><li>点击立体定向导航软件中的“图像融合”功能。 </li><li>合并的CT图像与MRI图像中的立体定向导航软件28,29。点击配对容积CT和MRI影像的“融合”选项卡下面，然后点击“自动融合”。 注：这会将立体定位框架坐标中的MRI检查。 </li><li>点击立体定向导航软件中的“立体定向计划”功能，并确认从步骤2.1.2的计划轨迹 - 2.1.6。 </li><li>选择容积CT的“立体定向功能”选项卡下的立体参考。 </li><li>点击T中的“打印”图标图标他垂直列打印的最终立体坐标为每个深度电极轨迹30,31。 </li></ol></li><li>植入技术<ol><li>返回病人到手术室以下的CT扫描。 </li><li>准备和使用常规消毒方法32,33悬垂外科领域。 </li><li>确保一荧光屏是在手术室，并沿与手术领域的其余披。 </li><li>从步骤2.1.20使用打印立体定向坐标，用于在井架第一深度电极设置的坐标。 注意：立体定向坐标在3个平面给出：横向（X），垂直（y）和前 - 后（z）表示。例如，对于在右DACC靶印刷的坐标48.2毫米的AP，6.6毫米横向和2.2毫米垂直。该井架然后设置这些坐标相应。 </li><li>延长guideblock向下到皮肤和上一次一标记毛刺孔的位置卡尔普用标记笔。固定在基础上的立体定向的坐标，因此代替guideblock，无标所必需的标记的切口。 </li><li>注入2 - 3毫升1 0.5％布比卡因的：100,000稀释肾上腺素到明显切口。 </li><li>使切口在用手术刀下到颅骨插入标记切口头皮。 </li><li>烧灼使用单极烧灼定向带有涂膜闭孔真皮和深部组织，以尽量减少船只在皮肤或皮下组织任何出血。 </li><li>利用在切口的中部一个2.1毫米捻钻头钻一个钻孔。 </li><li>打开与刚性闭孔探头硬脑膜。拧锚栓入颅。放置预先测定探针的探针通过锚定螺栓，使该电极的轨道。 </li><li>小心推进电极到预先计算的深度。拧紧地脚螺栓帽向下以固定电极。 </li><li>所有的重复此过程在深部电极。 </li><li>放置透视下方和周围的AP和侧向平面上的患者的头部，以获得荧光图像，以确保所有的电极的适当放置轨迹。 </li><li>电极连接到临床脑电图系统来验证适当阻抗。 </li><li>唤醒麻醉和转运病人恢复室，并在其后的动车组。 </li><li>在动车组，通过监控闭路监控临床发作和脑电图，通过对癫痫发作的脑电图证据的病人。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3.行为任务和数据采集<ol><li>行为任务<ol><li>电脑打开软件的行为完全投入运行行为的软件。 注：该功能是基于MonkeyLogic，一个MATLAB工具箱专为演示和执行时间精确心理任务34,35的说明，因而SPecific到行为的软件平台。这个程序是运行在matlab版2010A，并要求“数据采集工具箱”。不过，任何行为的软件平台，能够呈现视觉刺激和电生理记录的数据可以使用。 </li><li>集设计，运行MSIT任务包括频率相同的所有四个试验类型条件的文件。 注意：MSIT任务包括呈现所述受试者用三个数字为0至3，其中两个数字中，“干扰物”，是相同的，一个号码的提示时，“目标”，是不同的。 <ol><li>指示受试者通过按下一个按钮框的相应按钮，以确定“目标”。如果“1”是目标，左按钮是正确的选择。如果“2”，中间按钮，并且如果“3”，右按钮。 &#39;0&#39;不对应于一个可能的按钮（ 图2）。 </li&gt; </ol></li><li>按“设置条件”按钮，并选择了前一步设置所需条件的文件。 注意：有两种类型，在决策过程中诱发的认知冲突干扰。侧翼干扰试验时发生的干扰物是可能的（1，2，或3，而不是0）按钮的选择（ 例如 ，121），而当目标数的空间位置不同于响应位置发生空间干涉试验（ 例如，200 ，其中中间的按钮是正确的响应，尽管目标数是在左位置）。有基于这两个干扰类型的存在或不存在四审类型。 </li><li>在显示框中点击“测试”测试行为显示屏。显示监视器应当显示测试视觉刺激2 - 3秒。 </li><li>受试者接口装置（按钮盒）连接到所述数据的模拟输入采集板在电脑上专门记录通过三个标准BNC电缆的电数据。 </li><li>按钮盒连接到一个电源。 </li><li>通过带状电缆分裂连接数据采集板512通道的神经信号处理器成9丝带。丝带的8连接到端口0 -在数据采集板的数字I / O部分7，而9 日色带连接到端口0上的数据采集板的数字PFI部分。 注意：色带发送的8位数字标记（端口0 - 7，数字I / O）和一个选通脉冲（端口0，数字PFI），到神经信号处理器。 </li><li>设置在神经信号处理器软件所需的采样率。 <ol><li>在本实施例中，在线设置所需的采样速率，以每秒，别名和下样品50000样本以每秒1000采样。调整采样速率以适应任务的具体目标。亚毫秒级精确计时需要非常高的采样速率。 </li></ol></li><li>放大器连接到通过光纤电缆的神经信号处理器。 </li><li>神经信号处理器连接到数据流光并通过光纤电缆的光学PCI卡在神经数据采集计算机。 </li></ol></li><li>数据采集<ol><li>使用研究钻机用于容纳用于处理和滤波数字化512信道的神经信号处理器EMU电，从深部电极预放大的电信号。 注意：虽然有512个信道进行处理，但在实践中，有从未超过15 - 20电极放置用于临床目的。因此，我们建议从尽可能多的电极记录的数据的大小和空间分辨率可行的从来都不是一个问题。 </li><li>运送钻机到患者的房间，放置在患者的前行为监视器上的便携式台和连接到所述行为控制计算机运行使用标准DVI电缆的行为的软件。 </li><li>放置后面或向患者的床，以便在侧的记录钻机保持尽可能自然。 </li><li>研究系统连接到分线盒用于分隔临床系统的研究记录。 </li><li>利用神经信号处理软件34,35控制记录参数。 注：该系统能够通过行为事件34,35亚毫秒级的控制。神经和行为数据之间的同步可以完成与无论是模拟脉冲编码任务事件或数字标记。这两个信号可以从在数据采集板的数字或模拟输出到模拟或神经信号处理器上的数字输入发送。 </li><li>递给病人主题界面设备（按钮盒），并给予任务的指令。 </li><li>单击“运行”运行任务。 </li><li>允许患者完成每个150试验2个街区。 </li></ol></li></ol> 4.数据分析<ol><li>打开软件，允许电数据的可视化。 注意：下面提供的指令是特定于matlab版2010A但是，允许可视化和操控电数据，可以使用任何软件。 </li><li>包含从试验会议的原始电数据开放.edf文件。 </li><li>从会话可视化SEEG信号，以确保没有明显的神器，如癫痫样放电或运动伪影（ 图3A）。 </li><li>覆盖从行为任务的定时脉冲到原始LFP迹（ 图3B）来说明脉冲如何类似物可描绘试验结构。 </li><li>使用定时脉冲，对准SEEG跟踪以提示呈现为每个试验（ 图3C）。 </li><li>删除异常值（&gt; 4个标准差）和工件的痕迹（ 图3D）。 </li><li>保存在一个矩阵进一步分析所有排列试验（20中所示的试验堆放在图3E）。 </li><li>各试验的平均LFP活性降低噪声，伪影，或脑电图没有相关的呈现刺激活性的作用，并增加利息（ 图3F）的信号。 </li><li>创建使用多锥形光谱分析36-38原料，试验平均频谱。 注意：时频分析可以为了研究跨一或多个试验的特定频谱 - 时间动态使用。此方法使得能够神经振荡在不同的频率随时间变化的调查。 </li><li>垫从每个试验用零到2的下一个最大的电力，以避免边缘效应的信号。 </li><li>通过创建规范的信号的持续时间施加800毫秒的滑动窗口以5领先锥度和9每10ms一个时间带宽积trogram（ 图4A）。 </li><li>乘以10的频谱的对数和归一，以显示较高频率的信息。 注意：谱图可以由理论频率分布进行归一化（ 即，上升到负第二功率每个频率值）（ 图4B），一些基线活性（ 图4C）的平均频谱，或由平均分割并减去在每个频带中（ 图4D）的值的标准偏差。这个过程允许在raw和规格化形式随时间对特定的任务改变特定频带的检查。例如，高伽玛乐队活化（70 - 150赫兹），其示于图3E，被认为是反映围绕电极39,40的局部的神经元群的局部兴奋活性。 </li></ol>

作者有没有利益冲突披露。

本文SEEG使用期间在人类决策的任务来调查DACC内的局部神经元群体的活性。以前的工作已经利用术microelectode录音14考察单个神经元的活性，在DACC并证明DACC活性通过先前活动调制。微电极研究使单个神经元的扣球活动的调查。 SEEG衡量个LFP，横跨一个人口众多的神经元都与累加突触潜力。因此SEEG允许有机会同时从几个大脑区域的人口进行调查神经元的活动。 当使用的?...

癫痫，一个常见的神经系统疾病的特点是多反复发作随着时间的推移，占疾病1的全 ​​球负担1％。抗癫痫药物治疗未能在20个控制发作-患者2,3 30％。在这些药物难治的患者，癫痫手术常常表示4,5。进行手术的决定需要定位检重点，一个先决条件，制定手术方案。最初，非侵入性的技术被用来lateralize和本地化的扣押重点。脑电图（EEG），例如，措施皮层电活动记录，从放置在头皮电极，并且常常可以提供有关的发作焦点的位置的足够信息。此外，磁共振成像（MRI）可以证明离散病变，如海马硬化，经典的病理见于药物难治性癫痫是最常见的形式，近中吨emporal叶癫痫（MTLE）。 频繁，然而，非侵入性的后处理是无法识别发作焦点。在这些情况下，侵入的脑电图（ECOG）脑电极需要定位的焦点和指导进一步手术治疗6。脑电图是使用利用放置在与大脑直接接触的电极以测量电活性的神经生理技术。网格或表面带（硬膜）电极放置在脑，一个过程，需要一个开颅（除去骨瓣的）和大开口硬脑膜的表面上。这些表面电极可被放置在发作起始的推定面积（S）。电极的远端通过皮肤中的小开口隧道，并连接到在癫痫监视单元（EMU）的记录设备。在动车组，病人是通过连续的视频脑电图和监控录像，为临床癫痫发作。这种技术我S代表在相对大面积的皮质表面的收集​​长期（几天到几周）发作和发作间放电的记录有用。虽然这些颅内录音是非常宝贵的临床调查癫痫病灶和传播，他们也为我们提供了机会，调查认知功能和神经生理学的人类经历专门设计的行为任务。 脑电图使用硬膜下栅电极已被用于研究皮质功能，包括感觉和语言处理的各个方面。作为许多例子之一，查德等人证明了口服的肌肉的协调时间中形成的音节为口语在腹侧感觉运动皮层，鉴定为人类语音感觉皮层7的区域。此外，脑电图与硬膜下格栅位置也被用来研究由人类能够安泰信机制d可人群中的特定声音：所谓的“鸡尾酒会效应”8,9。脑电图记录表明，有两种不同的神经元频带动态地跟踪语音流，这两个低频相位和高伽马振幅的波动，并且有不同的加工位点 - 1&#39;调制&#39;站点跟踪两个扬声器，以及一个&#39;选择&#39;网站跟踪出席健谈5。 脑电图的另一个新兴应用与硬膜下电极放置为与脑计算机接口（景气）使用的潜力，其中“解码”神经元的活动，以驱动外部输出。该技术具有使患者有严重的脑或脊髓损伤与世界沟通和操纵假肢10,11的潜力。 而硬膜下格栅的位置一直对本港超级的理解做出了贡献ficial皮层区和在识别皮质癫痫病灶是有用的，这种技术确实需要开颅及其伴随的风险，并且通常仅限于研究大脑的外表面。立体定向脑电图（SEEG）是一种技术，使深致痫灶12的评估。在法国和意大利的使用有着悠久的历史，它也越来越多地被用于美国13。 SEEG涉及安置多个电极（通常为10 - 16）深的大脑通过小（几毫米）麻花钻颅骨钻孔的物质中。 SEEG超过硬膜网格放置优点包括其更少侵入性，易于在需要时检查双边半球，并产生发作传播的三维地图的能力。此外，这些电极使深致痫灶的标识，以前很难确定与表面电极。此过程还providES的机会，以调查在神经生理学和深皮质结构，如边缘系统中，mesoparietal皮质，mesotemporal皮层和眶额皮质，所有这些在以前是很难直接观察在人类中的功能。 本文演示SEEG如何利用在背前扣带皮层（DACC）调查的认知功能。所述DACC是一个广泛的研究大脑区域，但它也是理解最不好之一。考虑人类认知一个显著区域，则很可能该DACC是中央的决定中的由环境14施加连续变化的需求的上下文中动态神经处理。研究两种灵长类15,16和人类17表明DACC集成了给定的动作的潜在风险和回报，尤其是在多个同时相互矛盾的情况下要求18-21和米odulates在以前的行动及其结果14,22,23的情况下这些决定。 的多源干扰任务（MSIT），一个斯特鲁普状行为的任务，经常被用来调查冲突处理在DACC。该MSIT任务，招募参与处理由DACC 24,25调节多个域的神经元激活DACC。此任务特别通过测试决策，目标检测，新奇检测，错误检测，响应选择和刺激/响应的竞争特征激活DACC。此外，MSIT任务引入认知干扰，这是用于本研究，以DACC使用SEEG同步冲突的刺激神经反应的多个维度。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
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		<tr>
			<td>Trigger I/O cable</td>
			<td>Natus Medical Inc.</td>
			<td>5029</td>
			<td>PS2 to BNC cable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BNC cables for analog pulses</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can be ordered from most electronics stores.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power strip with surge protection and battery backup</td>
			<td>Tripp Lite</td>
			<td>SMART500RT1U UPC</td>
			<td>Power source and backup</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>National instruments multifunctional daq data acquisition box NI PCIe-6382 DAQ cards</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>PCIe-6382 w/ BNC 2090A</td>
			<td>PCI cards for behavioral control interface</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom made button box - human interface device</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Any human interface device with three buttons may be used. Alternatively, 3 keyboard buttons may be used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xltek 128 channel clinical intracranial EEG monitoring system EMU128FS</td>
			<td>Natus Medical Inc.</td>
			<td>002047c</td>
			<td>Clinical recording system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Subject monitor and associated cables for visual stimulus presentation</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>U2212HMc</td>
			<td>Most Monitors are adequate here.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Personal comptuer running behavioral software with DAQ cards installed</td>
			<td>Superlogics</td>
			<td>SL-2U-PD-Q87SLQ-BA</td>
			<td>Computer for recording neural data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mains cable for monitor</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Usually comes with the monitor, can be purchased at any electronics store.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monkey Logic software which runs on Matlab 2010A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Free from MonkeyLogic website</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB 2010a software with data acquisition toolbox</td>
			<td>Mathworks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Matlab software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sEEG electrodes AD TECH or PMT</td>
			<td>AD TECH</td>
			<td>2102-##-101</td>
			<td>Platinum tip, diameter (0.89 mm, 1 mm, 1.1 mm), uninsulated length 2.3 mm; The ## in the catalog number indicates the number of contacts on the electrode (08, 10, 12, or 16)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cabrio connectors</td>
			<td>PMT</td>
			<td>2125-##-01</td>
			<td>The ## in the catalog number indicates the number of contacts on the electrode (08, 10, 12, or 16)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tucker Davis Technologies Amplifier</td>
			<td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td>
			<td>PZ5</td>
			<td>preamplifier for neural data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tucker Davis Technologies processor</td>
			<td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td>
			<td>RZ2</td>
			<td>Neural signal processor for neural data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TuckerDavis Technologies data streamer</td>
			<td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td>
			<td>RS4</td>
			<td>Data streamer and storage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiber optics cables to connect TDT systems</td>
			<td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td>
			<td>F05</td>
			<td>Fiber optic cables for connecting Tucker Davis Technologies&#39; prodcuts.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ribbon cable and snap serial connector for digital markers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can be ordered from ost electronics stores.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>personal computer fro running TDT RPvdsEx and OpenEx software</td>
			<td>Superlogics</td>
			<td>SL-2U-PD-Q87SLQ-BA</td>
			<td>computer for behavioral control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>middle atlantics server cabinet with casters</td>
			<td>Middle Atlantic Products</td>
			<td>PTRK-21</td>
			<td>Server case to house all of the research items</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tucker Davis Technologies splitter box to split clinical and research recrodings</td>
			<td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>This splitter box is a semi-custom device. Researchers should consult the attending neurologists about splitting the research and clinical recordings in a way that doesn&#39;t interfere with clinical care.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Researcher monitor with requisite cables</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>U2212HMc</td>
			<td>Most Monitors are adequate here.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>button box power source - 5 volts, 2 amperes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can be purchased at any electronics store.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TDT optical interface PCI card</td>
			<td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td>
			<td>P05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

investigating the function of deep cortical and subcortical structures using stereotactic electroencephalography: lessons from the anterior cingulate cortex

立体定向脑电图（SEEG）是用于本地化的癫痫患者病灶与药物难治性癫痫的技术。此过程涉及多个深部电极的慢性放置到大脑硬膜下通过栅电极放置通常无法进入的地区。 SEEG从而提供了一个独特的机会，研究脑功能。在本文中，我们展示SEEG如何被用于研究背侧前扣带皮层（DACC）的认知控制的作用。我们包括SEEG过程的描述，显示了电极的外科手术位置。我们描述了从科目同意的，而他们从事的工作行为记录局部场电位（LFP）数据所需的组件和程序。在提供的例子中，受试者中发挥认知干扰任务，我们证明信号如何从电极在背侧前扣带皮层，区域intim记录和分析ately参与决策。我们的结论与方法，使此方法可用于研究人类认知过程的进一步建议。

一旦患者被选择用于SEEG电极放置，他/她经历体积的T2和T1对比增强MRI。 SEEG电极轨迹然后使用体积MRI序列的立体定向导航（ 图1）的计划。该技术允许对从结构内皮层深局部场电位如背侧前扣带皮层（浅橙色的轨迹， 图1），这将是不可能的，典型的表面电极放置的收集。手术后的动车，病人进行多源干扰任务（ 图2），旨在激活DACC神经元。试验的足够数量之?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex a

Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

立体定向脑电图（SEEG）是一种手术技术在癫痫手术用于帮助本地化癫痫病灶。它也提供了一个独特的机会来调查大脑功能。这里，我们描述SEEG如何可以被用来研究在人受试者认知过程。

调查深皮层的功​​能和皮层下结构采用立体定向脑电图：由前扣带皮层的经验教训

Stereotactic Electroencephalography (SEEG) is a technique used to localize seizure foci in patients with medically intractable epilepsy. This procedure ...

investigating-function-deep-cortical-subcortical-structures-using

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

12.1K 次观看.  Columbia University Medical Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital. 立体定向脑电图（SEEG）是一种手术技术在癫痫手术用于帮助本地化癫痫病灶。它也提供了一个独特的机会来调查大脑功能。这里，我们描述SEEG如何可以被用来研究在人受试者认知过程。 

视频: Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Investigating Social Cognition in Infants and Adults Using Dense Array Electroencephalography (dEEG)

Dense array electroencephalography (dEEG), which provides a non-invasive window for measuring brain activity and a temporal resolution unsurpassed by any other current brain imaging technology1,2, is being used increasingly in the study of social cognitive functioning in infants and adults. While dEEG is enabling researchers to examine brain activity patterns with unprecedented levels of sensitivity, conventional EEG recording systems continue to face certain limitations, including 1) poor spatial resolution and source localization3,4,2) the physical discomfort for test subjects of enduring the individual application of numerous electrodes to the surface of the scalp, and 3) the complexity for researchers of learning to use multiple software packages to collect and process data. Here we present an overview of an established methodology that represents a significant improvement on conventional methodologies for studying EEG in infants and adults. Although several analytical software techniques can be used to establish indirect indices of source localization to improve the spatial resolution of dEEG, the HydroCel Geodesic Sensor Net (HCGSN) by Electrical Geodesics, Inc. (EGI), a dense sensory array that maintains equal distances among adjacent recording electrodes on all surfaces of the scalp, further enhances spatial resolution4,5,6 compared to standard dEEG systems. The sponge-based HCGSN can be applied rapidly and without scalp abrasion, making it ideal for use with adults7,8, children9,10,11, and infants12, in both research and clinical4,5,6,13,14,15 settings. This feature allows for considerable cost and time savings by decreasing the average net application time compared to other dEEG systems. Moreover, the HCGSN includes unified, seamless software applications for all phases of data, greatly simplifying the collection, processing, and analysis of dEEG data.
The HCGSN features a low-profile electrode pedestal, which, when filled with electrolyte solution, creates a sealed microenvironment and an electrode-scalp interface. In all Geodesic dEEG systems, EEG sensors detect changes in voltage originating from the participant's scalp, along with a small amount of electrical noise originating from the room environment. Electrical signals from all sensors of the Geodesic sensor net are received simultaneously by the amplifier, where they are automatically processed, packaged, and sent to the data-acquisition computer (DAC). Once received by the DAC, scalp electrical activity can be isolated from artifacts for analysis using the filtering and artifact detection tools included in the EGI software. Typically, the HCGSN can be used continuously for only up to two hours because the electrolyte solution dries out over time, gradually decreasing the quality of the scalp-electrode interface.
In the Parent-Infant Research Lab at the University of Toronto, we are using dEEG to study social cognitive processes including memory, emotion, goals, intentionality, anticipation, and executive functioning in both adult and infant participants.

Investigating Social Cognition in Infants and Adults Using Dense Array Electroencephalography dEEG

Dense array electroencephalography is being used increasingly to study social cognitive functions in infants and adults. Here we present an established methodology that represents a significant improvement on conventional methodologies for studying EEG in infants and adults.

调查婴儿和成人使用密集阵脑电图的社会认知（ D脑电图）

Dense array electroencephalography (dEEG), which provides a non-invasive window for measuring brain activity and a temporal resolution unsurpassed by any ...

科研

神经科学

Simultaneous Electroencephalography, Real-time Measurement of Lactate Concentration and Optogenetic Manipulation of Neuronal Activity in the Rodent Cerebral Cortex

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body at rest1. The function of non rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS), the largest portion of sleep by time, is uncertain. However, one salient feature of NREMS is a significant reduction in the rate of cerebral glucose utilization relative to wakefulness2-4. This and other findings have led to the widely held belief that sleep serves a function related to cerebral metabolism. Yet, the mechanisms underlying the reduction in cerebral glucose metabolism during NREMS remain to be elucidated.
	One phenomenon associated with NREMS that might impact cerebral metabolic rate is the occurrence of slow waves, oscillations at frequencies less than 4 Hz, in the electroencephalogram5,6. These slow waves detected at the level of the skull or cerebral cortical surface reflect the oscillations of underlying neurons between a depolarized/up state and a hyperpolarized/down state7. During the down state, cells do not undergo action potentials for intervals of up to several hundred milliseconds. Restoration of ionic concentration gradients subsequent to action potentials represents a significant metabolic load on the cell8; absence of action potentials during down states associated with NREMS may contribute to reduced metabolism relative to wake.
	Two technical challenges had to be addressed in order for this hypothetical relationship to be tested. First, it was necessary to measure cerebral glycolytic metabolism with a temporal resolution reflective of the dynamics of the cerebral EEG (that is, over seconds rather than minutes). To do so, we measured the concentration of lactate, the product of aerobic glycolysis, and therefore a readout of the rate of glucose metabolism in the brains of mice. Lactate was measured using a lactate oxidase based real time sensor embedded in the frontal cortex. The sensing mechanism consists of a platinum-iridium electrode surrounded by a layer of lactate oxidase molecules. Metabolism of lactate by lactate oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide, which produces a current in the platinum-iridium electrode. So a ramping up of cerebral glycolysis provides an increase in the concentration of substrate for lactate oxidase, which then is reflected in increased current at the sensing electrode. It was additionally necessary to measure these variables while manipulating the excitability of the cerebral cortex, in order to isolate this variable from other facets of NREMS.
	We devised an experimental system for simultaneous measurement of neuronal activity via the elecetroencephalogram, measurement of glycolytic flux via a lactate biosensor, and manipulation of cerebral cortical neuronal activity via optogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons. We have utilized this system to document the relationship between sleep-related electroencephalographic waveforms and the moment-to-moment dynamics of lactate concentration in the cerebral cortex. The protocol may be useful for any individual interested in studying, in freely behaving rodents, the relationship between neuronal activity measured at the electroencephalographic level and cellular energetics within the brain.

A procedure is described for manipulating the activity of cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons optogenetically while the electroencephalogram, electromyogram, and cerebral lactate concentration are monitored. Experimental recordings are performed on cable-tethered mice while they undergo spontaneous sleep/wake cycles. Optogenetic equipment is assembled in our laboratory; recording equipment is commercially available.

同时脑电图，实时测量的啮齿动物的大脑皮质中的神经元活动的乳酸浓度与Optogenetic的操作

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body  by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body  at rest1. The ...

Juxtasomal Biocytin Labeling to Study the Structure-function Relationship of Individual Cortical Neurons

The cerebral cortex is characterized by multiple layers and many distinct cell-types that together as a network are responsible for many higher cognitive functions including decision making, sensory-guided behavior or memory. To understand how such intricate neuronal networks perform such tasks, a crucial step is to determine the function (or electrical activity) of individual cell types within the network, preferentially when the animal is performing a relevant cognitive task. Additionally, it is equally important to determine the anatomical structure of the network and the morphological architecture of the individual neurons to allow reverse engineering the cortical network. Technical breakthroughs available today allow recording cellular activity in awake, behaving animals with the valuable option of post&#160;hoc identifying the recorded neurons. Here, we demonstrate the juxtasomal biocytin labeling technique, which involves recording action potential spiking in the extracellular (or loose-patch) configuration using conventional patch pipettes. The juxtasomal recording configuration is relatively stable and applicable across behavioral conditions, including anesthetized, sedated, awake head-fixed, and even in the freely moving animal. Thus, this method allows linking cell-type specific action potential spiking during animal behavior to reconstruction of the individual neurons and ultimately, the entire cortical microcircuit. In this video manuscript, we show how individual neurons in the juxtasomal configuration can be labeled with biocytin in the urethane-anaesthetized rat for post&#160;hoc identification and morphological reconstruction.

To understand the structure of neuronal networks, functional and morphological characterization of individual neurons is a necessity. Here, we demonstrate juxtasomal biocytin labeling, which allows electrophysiological recordings in the extracellular configuration, yet maintaining the ability to intracellularly label the neuron for post&#160;hoc reconstruction of dendritic and axonal architecture.

Juxtasomal生物胞素标记来研究单个皮层神经元的结构与功能的关系

The cerebral cortex is characterized by multiple layers and many distinct cell-types that together as a network are responsible for many higher cognitive ...

Analysis of Gene Expression Changes in the Rat Hippocampus After Deep Brain Stimulation of the Anterior Thalamic Nucleus

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, targeting various regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia, thalamus, and subthalamic regions, is an effective treatment for several movement disorders that have failed to respond to medication. Recent progress in the field of DBS surgery has begun to extend the application of this surgical technique to other conditions as diverse as morbid obesity, depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. Despite these expanding indications, little is known about the underlying physiological mechanisms that facilitate the beneficial effects of DBS surgery. One approach to this question is to perform gene expression analysis in neurons that receive the electrical stimulation. Previous studies have shown that neurogenesis in the rat dentate gyrus is elicited in DBS targeting of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus1. DBS surgery targeting the ATN is used widely for treatment refractory epilepsy. It is thus of much interest for us to explore the transcriptional changes induced by electrically stimulating the ATN. In this manuscript, we describe our methodologies for stereotactically-guided DBS surgery targeting the ATN in adult male Wistar rats. We also discuss the subsequent steps for tissue dissection, RNA isolation, cDNA preparation and quantitative RT-PCR for measuring gene expression changes. This method could be applied and modified for stimulating the basal ganglia and other regions of the brain commonly clinically targeted. The gene expression study described here assumes a candidate target gene approach for discovering molecular players that could be directing the mechanism for DBS.

The mechanism underlying the therapeutic effects of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) surgery needs investigation. The methods presented in this manuscript describe an experimental approach to examine the cellular events triggered by DBS by analyzing the gene expression profile of candidate genes that can facilitate neurogenesis post DBS surgery.

基因表达的变化大鼠海马后，前丘脑核脑深部刺激分析

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, targeting various regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia, thalamus, and subthalamic regions, is an effective ...

Imaging Serotonergic Fibers in the Mouse Spinal Cord Using the CLARITY/CUBIC Technique

Long descending fibers to the spinal cord are essential for locomotion, pain perception, and other behaviors. The fiber termination pattern in the spinal cord of the majority of these fiber systems have not been thoroughly investigated in any species. Serotonergic fibers, which project to the spinal cord, have been studied in rats and opossums on histological sections and their functional significance has been deduced based on their fiber termination pattern in the spinal cord. With the development of CLARITY and CUBIC techniques, it is possible to investigate this fiber system and its distribution in the spinal cord, which is likely to reveal previously unknown features of serotonergic supraspinal pathways. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for imaging the serotonergic fibers in the mouse spinal cord using the combined CLARITY and CUBIC techniques. The method involves perfusion of a mouse with a hydrogel solution and clarification of the tissue with a combination of clearing reagents. Spinal cord tissue was cleared in just under two weeks, and the subsequent immunofluorescent staining against serotonin was completed in less than ten days. With a multi-photon fluorescent microscope, the tissue was scanned and a 3D image was reconstructed using Osirix software.

Supraspinal projections are important for pain perception and other behaviors, and serotonergic fibers are one of these fiber systems. The present study focused on the application of the combined CLARITY/CUBIC protocol to the mouse spinal cord in order to investigate the termination of these serotonergic fibers.

影像学检查HT能纤维在小鼠脊髓使用CLARITY / CUBIC技术

Long descending fibers to the spinal cord are essential for locomotion, pain perception, and other behaviors. The fiber termination pattern in the spinal ...

Exploring Deep Space - Uncovering the Anatomy of Periventricular Structures to Reveal the Lateral Ventricles of the Human Brain

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this challenging. Because the ventricles are negative spaces located deep within the brain, the only way to understand their anatomy is by appreciating their boundaries formed by related structures. Looking at a 2D representation of these spaces, in any of the cardinal planes, will not enable visualisation of all of the structures that form the boundaries of the ventricles. Thus, using 2D sections alone requires students to compute their own mental image of the 3D ventricular spaces. The aim of this study was to develop a reproducible method for dissecting the human brain to create an educational resource to enhance student understanding of the intricate relationships between the ventricles and periventricular structures. To achieve this, we created a video resource that features a step-by-step guide using a fiber dissection method to reveal the lateral and third ventricles together with the closely related limbic system and basal ganglia structures. One of the advantages of this method is that it enables delineation of the white matter tracts that are difficult to distinguish using other dissection techniques. This video is accompanied by a written protocol that provides a systematic description of the process to aid in the reproduction of the brain dissection. This package offers a valuable anatomy teaching resource for educators and students alike. By following these instructions educators can create teaching resources and students can be guided to produce their own brain dissection as a hands-on practical activity. We recommend that this video guide be incorporated into neuroanatomy teaching to enhance student understanding of the morphology and clinical relevance of the ventricles.

This paper demonstrates the effective use of a fiber dissection method to reveal the superficial white matter tracts and periventricular structures of the human brain, in three-dimensional space, to aid student comprehension of ventricular morphology.

探索深空-揭开人脑侧脑室的脑室结构解剖

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this ...

Simultaneous Recordings of Cortical Local Field Potentials, Electrocardiogram, Electromyogram, and Breathing Rhythm from a Freely Moving Rat

Monitoring the physiological dynamics of the brain and peripheral tissues is necessary for addressing a number of questions about how the brain controls body functions and internal organ rhythms when animals are exposed to emotional challenges and changes in their living environments. In general experiments, signals from different organs, such as the brain and the heart, are recorded by independent recording systems that require multiple recording devices and different procedures for processing the data files. This study describes a new method that can simultaneously monitor electrical biosignals, including tens of local field potentials in multiple brain regions, electrocardiograms that represent the cardiac rhythm, electromyograms that represent awake/sleep-related muscle contraction, and breathing signals, in a freely moving rat. The recording configuration of this method is based on a conventional micro-drive array for cortical local field potential recordings in which tens of electrodes are accommodated, and the signals obtained from these electrodes are integrated into a single electrical board mounted on the animal's head. Here, this recording system was improved so that signals from the peripheral organs are also transferred to an electrical interface board. In a single surgery, electrodes are first separately implanted into the appropriate body parts and the target brain areas. The open ends of all of these electrodes are then soldered to individual channels of the electrical board above the animal's head so that all of the signals can be integrated into the single electrical board. Connecting this board to a recording device allows for the collection of all of the signals into a single device, which reduces experimental costs and simplifies data processing, because all data can be handled in the same data file. This technique will aid the understanding of the neurophysiological correlates of the associations between central and peripheral organs.

This study introduces a method for the simultaneous recording of local field potentials in the brain, electrocardiograms, electromyograms, and breathing signals of a freely moving rat. This technique, which reduces experimental costs and simplifies data analysis, will contribute to the understanding of the interactions between the brain and peripheral organs.

自由运动大鼠皮质局部电位、心电图、肌电图和呼吸节律的同步记录

Monitoring the physiological dynamics of the brain and peripheral tissues is necessary for addressing a number of questions about how the brain controls ...

Combined Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Electroencephalography of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method that produces neural excitation in the cortex by means of brief, time-varying magnetic field pulses. The initiation of cortical activation or its modulation depends on the background activation of the neurons of the cortical region activated, the characteristics of the coil, its position and its orientation with respect to the head. TMS combined with simultaneous electrocephalography (EEG) and neuronavigation (nTMS-EEG) allows for the assessment of cortico-cortical excitability and connectivity in almost all cortical areas in a reproducible manner. This advance makes nTMS-EEG a powerful tool that can accurately assess brain dynamics and neurophysiology in test-retest paradigms that are required for clinical trials. Limitations of this method include artifacts that cover the initial brain reactivity to stimulation. Thus, the process of removing artifacts may also extract valuable information. Moreover, the optimal parameters for dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC) stimulation are not fully known and current protocols utilize variations from the motor cortex (M1) stimulation paradigms. However, evolving nTMS-EEG designs hope to address these issues. The protocol presented here introduces some standard practices for assessing neurophysiological functioning from stimulation to the DLPFC that can be applied in patients with treatment resistant psychiatric disorders that receive treatment such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), magnetic seizure therapy (MST) or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

The protocol presented here is for TMS-EEG studies utilizing intracortical excitability test-retest design paradigms. The intent of the protocol is to produce reliable and reproducible cortical excitability measures for assessing neurophysiological functioning related to therapeutic interventions in the treatment of neuropsychiatric diseases such as major depression.

侧前额叶皮质联合经颅磁刺激与脑电图的研究

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method that produces neural excitation in the cortex by means of brief, time-varying magnetic ...

Chronic Implantation of Whole-cortical Electrocorticographic Array in the Common Marmoset

Electrocorticography (ECoG) allows the monitoring of electrical field potentials from the cerebral cortex with high spatiotemporal resolution. Recent development of thin, flexible ECoG electrodes has enabled conduction of stable recordings of large-scale cortical activity. We have developed a whole-cortical ECoG array for the common marmoset. The array continuously covers almost the entire lateral surface of cortical hemisphere, from the occipital pole to the temporal and frontal poles, and it captures whole-cortical neural activity in one shot. This protocol describes a chronic implantation procedure of the array in the epidural space of the marmoset brain. Marmosets have two advantages regarding ECoG recordings, one being the homologous organization of anatomical structures in humans and macaques, including frontal, parietal, and temporal complexes. The other advantage is that the marmoset brain is lissencephalic and contains a large number of complexes, which are more difficult to access in macaques with ECoG, that are exposed to the brain surface.These features allow direct access to most cortical areas beneath the surface of the brain. This system provides an opportunity to investigate global cortical information processing with high resolutions at a sub-millisecond order in time and millimeter order in space.

We have developed a whole-cortical electrocorticographic array for the common marmoset that continuously covers almost the entire lateral surface of cortex, from the occipital pole to the temporal and frontal poles. This protocol describes a chronic implantation procedure of the array in the epidural space of the marmoset brain.

常见马莫塞的全皮质电皮质阵列的慢性植入

Electrocorticography (ECoG) allows the monitoring of electrical field potentials from the cerebral cortex with high spatiotemporal resolution. Recent ...

Stimulus-specific Cortical Visual Evoked Potential Morphological Patterns

This paper presents a methodology for the recording and analysis of cortical visual evoked potentials (CVEPs) in response to various visual stimuli using 128-channel high-density electroencephalography (EEG). The specific aim of the described stimuli and analyses is to examine whether it is feasible to replicate previously reported CVEP morphological patterns elicited by an apparent motion stimulus, designed to simultaneously stimulate both ventral and dorsal central visual networks, using object and motion stimuli designed to separately stimulate ventral and dorsal visual cortical networks.&#160; Four visual paradigms are presented: 1. Randomized visual objects with consistent temporal presentation. 2. Randomized visual objects with inconsistent temporal presentation (or jitter).&#160; 3. Visual motion via a radial field of coherent central dot motion without jitter.&#160; 4. Visual motion via a radial field of coherent central dot motion with jitter.&#160; These four paradigms are presented in a pseudo-randomized order for each participant.&#160; Jitter is introduced in order to view how possible anticipatory-related effects may affect the morphology of the object-onset and motion-onset CVEP response.&#160; EEG data analyses are described in detail, including steps of data exportation from and importation to signal processing platforms, bad channel identification&#160;and removal, artifact rejection, averaging, and categorization of average CVEP morphological pattern type based upon latency ranges of component peaks. Representative data show that the methodological approach is indeed sensitive in eliciting differential object-onset and motion-onset CVEP morphological patterns and may, therefore, be useful in addressing the larger research aim. Given the high temporal resolution of EEG and the possible application of high-density EEG in source localization analyses, this protocol is ideal for the investigation of distinct CVEP morphological patterns and the underlying neural mechanisms which generate these differential responses.&#160; &#160; &#160;&#160;

In this paper, we present a protocol to investigate differential cortical visual evoked potential morphological patterns through stimulation of ventral and dorsal networks using high-density EEG. Visual object and motion stimulus paradigms, with and without temporal jitter, are described. Visual evoked potential morphological analyses are also outlined.&#160;&#160;

刺激特定的皮质视觉引发潜在形态模式

This paper presents a methodology for the recording and analysis of cortical visual evoked potentials (CVEPs) in response to various visual stimuli using ...

调查深皮层的功​​能和皮层下结构采用立体定向脑电图：由前扣带皮层的经验教训

调查深皮层的功能和皮层下结构采用立体定向脑电图：由前扣带皮层的经验教训