Name: direct observation of enzymes replicating dna using a single-molecule dna stretching assay
Uploaded: 2010-03-23T17:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Direct Observation of Enzymes Replicating DNA Using a Single-molecule DNA Stretching Assay at JoVE.com

The development of the DNA stretching assay was aided by Paul Blainey, Jong-Bong Lee, and Samir Hamdan. This work is supported by the National Institutes of Health grants to Charles Richardson (GM54397), and Antoine van Oijen (GM077248).

1. DNA Replication Template
DNA for the reaction is a linearized &lambda; DNA modified by annealing of oligonucleotides to form a replication fork. &nbsp;Additionally, biotin is attached to the end of one strand of the &lambda; DNA, and a digoxigenin moiety is attached to the other end of the same strand1.
Materials: Bacteriophage &lambda; DNA, Oligonucleotides: biotinylated fork arm (A: 5'-biotin-AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGAGTACTGTACGATCTAGCATCAA...

<ol>
	<li>Lee, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+primase+acts+as+a+molecular+brake+in+DNA+replication.">DNA primase acts as a molecular brake in DNA replication.</a> Nature. 439, 621-624 (2006).</li><li>Tanner, N. A., van Oijen, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+observation+of+prokaryotic+DNA+replication.">Single-molecule observation of prokaryotic DNA replication.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 521, 397-410 (2009).</li><li>Sofia, S. J., Premnath, V. V., Merrill, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poly(ethylene+oxide)+Grafted+to+Silicon+Surfaces:+Grafting+Density+and+Protein+Adsorption.">Poly(ethylene oxide) Grafted to Silicon Surfaces: Grafting Density and Protein Adsorption.</a> Macromolecules. 31, 5059-5070 (1998).</li><li>Tanner, N. A., Loparo, J. J., van Oijen, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+single-molecule+DNA+replication+with+fluorescence+microscopy.">Visualizing single-molecule DNA replication with fluorescence microscopy.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2009).</li><li>Hamdan, S. M., Loparo, J. J., Takahashi, M., Richardson, C. C., van Oijen, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+of+DNA+replication+loops+reveal+temporal+control+of+lagging-strand+synthesis.">Dynamics of DNA replication loops reveal temporal control of lagging-strand synthesis.</a> Nature. 457, 336-339 (2009).</li><li>van Oijen, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+kinetics+of+lambda+exonuclease+reveal+base+dependence+and+dynamic+disorder.">Single-molecule kinetics of lambda exonuclease reveal base dependence and dynamic disorder.</a> Science. 301, 1235-1238 (2003).</li></ol>

It is important to ensure that the drag force exerted on beads by laminar flow doesn't influence enzymatic activities of the replication proteins. For instance, a 3 pN force that corresponds to a flow rate of 0.012 ml/min does not affect replication of the DNA leading strand. It does however affect enzymatic activities that take place during coordinated DNA synthesis, and it therefore has to be reduced to 1.5 pN. The drag force can be easily controlled by changing the flow rate or a width of the flow channel5....

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		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Bacteriophage &lambda; DNA</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>New England Biolabs</td>
<td>N3011L</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>DNA Oligonucleotides</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>T4 DNA Ligase</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>New England Biolabs</td>
<td>M0202L</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>T4 Polynucleotide Kinase</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>New England Biolabs</td>
<td>M0201L</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>&alpha;-digoxigenin Fab</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Roche</td>
<td>11214667001</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Tosyl Activated Beads</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dynal/Invitrogen</td>
<td>142-03</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Magnetic Separator</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>Dynal MPC</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>A3648</td>
<td>Other aminosilanes can be used or mixed with non-amine reactive silanes for sparser surfaces</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Succinimidyl propionate PEG</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Nektar</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Similar PEGs can be purchased from Nanocs, CreativePEGWorks, etc.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Biotin-PEG-NHS</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Nektar</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Similar PEGs can be purchased from Nanocs, CreativePEGWorks, etc.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Double-sided tape</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Grace BioLabs</td>
<td>SA-S-1L</td>
<td>100 &mu;m thickness</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Quartz slide</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Technical Glass</td>
<td>20 mm (W)x 50 mm (L)x 1mm (H)</td>
<td>Size to fit on coverslips. Drill holes with diamond-tip drill bits (DiamondBurs.net)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Polyethylene tubing</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
<td>427416</td>
<td>0.76 mm ID, 1.22 OD 
Other size tubing can be substituted.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Streptavidin</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>S4762</td>
<td>Make 1 mg/mL solution, 25 &mu;L aliquots in PBS pH 7.3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate solution mix</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>New England Biolabs</td>
<td>N0447</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Inverted Optical Microscope with 10X Objective</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Olympus</td>
<td>Olympus IX-51</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Permament rare-earth magnet</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>National Imports</td>
<td>www.rare-earth-magnets.com</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>CCD Camera</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>QImaging</td>
<td>Rolera-XR Fast 139</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Syringe Pump</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
<td>11 Plus</td>
<td>Operate in refill mode to facilitate solution changes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Fiber Illuminator</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Thorlabs Inc.</td>
<td>OSL1</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

direct observation of enzymes replicating dna using a single-molecule dna stretching assay

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. Linearized &lambda; DNA is modified to have a biotin on the end of one strand, and a digoxigenin moiety on the other end of the same strand. The biotinylated end is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and the digoxigeninated end to a small bead. The assembly of these DNA-bead tethers on the surface of a flow cell allows a laminar flow to be applied to exert a drag force on the bead. As a result, the DNA is stretched close to and parallel to the surface of the coverslip at a force that is determined by the flow rate (Figure 1). The length of the DNA is measured by monitoring the position of the bead. Length differences between single- and double-stranded DNA are utilized to obtain real-time information on the activity of the replication proteins at the fork. Measuring the position of the bead allows precise determination of the rates and processivities of DNA unwinding and polymerization (Figure 2).

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Direct Observation of Enzymes Replicating DNA Using a Single-molecule DNA Stretching Assay at JoVE.com

Direct Observation of Enzymes Replicating DNA Using a Single-molecule DNA Stretching Assay

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system.

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. ...

direct-observation-enzymes-replicating-dna-using-single-molecule-dna

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Methylated DNA Immunoprecipitation

The identification of DNA methylation patterns is a common procedure in the study of epigenetics, as methylation is known to have significant effects on gene expression, and is involved with normal development as well as disease 1-4. Thus, the ability to discriminate between methylated DNA and non-methylated DNA is essential for generating methylation profiles for such studies. Methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) is an efficient technique for the extraction of methylated DNA from a sample of interest 5-7. A sample of as little as 200 ng of DNA is sufficient for the antibody, or immunoprecipitation (IP), reaction. DNA is sonicated into fragments ranging in size from 300-1000 bp, and is divided into immunoprecipitated (IP) and input (IN) portions. IP DNA is subsequently heat denatured and then incubated with anti-5'mC, allowing the monoclonal antibody to bind methylated DNA. After this, magnetic beads containing a secondary antibody with affinity for the primary antibody are added, and incubated. These bead-linked antibodies will bind the monoclonal antibody used in the first step. DNA bound to the antibody complex (methylated DNA) is separated from the rest of the DNA by using a magnet to pull the complexes out of solution. Several washes using IP buffer are then performed to remove the unbound, non-methylated DNA. The methylated DNA/antibody complexes are then digested with Proteinase K to digest the antibodies leaving only the methylated DNA intact. The enriched DNA is purified by phenol:chloroform extraction to remove the protein matter and then precipitated and resuspended in water for later use. PCR techniques can be used to validate the efficiency of the MeDIP procedure by analyzing the amplification products of IP and IN DNA for regions known to lack and known to contain methylated sequences. The purified methylated DNA can then be used for locus-specific (PCR) or genome-wide (microarray and sequencing) methylation studies, and is particularly useful when applied in conjunction with other research tools such as gene expression profiling and array comparative genome hybridization (CGH) 8. Further investigation into DNA methylation will lead to the discovery of new epigenetic targets, which in turn, may be useful in developing new therapeutic or prognostic research tools for diseases such as cancer that are characterized by aberrantly methylated DNA 2, 4, 9-11.

This video demonstrates the protocol for methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP). MeDIP is a two day procedure that selectively extracts methylated DNA fragments from a genomic DNA sample using antibodies with specificity for 5 -methylcytosine (anti-5 mC).

The identification of DNA methylation patterns is a common procedure in the study of epigenetics, as methylation is known to have significant effects on ...

Visualizing Single-molecule DNA Replication with Fluorescence Microscopy

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA template is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and replicated extensively after introduction of replication proteins and nucleotides (Figure 1). The growing product double-strand DNA (dsDNA) is extended with laminar flow and visualized by using an intercalating dye. Measuring the position of the growing DNA end in real time allows precise determination of replication rate (Figure 2). Furthermore, the length of completed DNA products reports on the processivity of replication. This experiment can be performed very easily and rapidly and requires only a fluorescence microscope with a reasonably sensitive camera.


This protocol demonstrates a simple single-molecule fluorescence microscopy technique for visualizing DNA replication by individual replisomes in real time.

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA ...

DNA Stable-Isotope Probing (DNA-SIP)

DNA stable-isotope probing (DNA-SIP) is a powerful technique for identifying active microorganisms that assimilate particular carbon substrates and nutrients into cellular biomass. As such, this cultivation-independent technique has been an important methodology for assigning metabolic function to the diverse communities inhabiting a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic environments. Following the incubation of an environmental sample with stable-isotope labelled compounds, extracted nucleic acid is subjected to density gradient ultracentrifugation and subsequent gradient fractionation to separate nucleic acids of differing densities. Purification of DNA from cesium chloride retrieves labelled and unlabelled DNA for subsequent molecular characterization (e.g. fingerprinting, microarrays, clone libraries, metagenomics). This JoVE video protocol provides visual step-by-step explanations of the protocol for density gradient ultracentrifugation, gradient fractionation and recovery of labelled DNA. The protocol also includes sample SIP data and highlights important tips and cautions that must be considered to ensure a successful DNA-SIP analysis.

DNA Stable-Isotope Probing DNA-SIP

DNA stable-isotope probing is a cultivation-independent method to identify and characterize active communities of microorganisms that are capable of utilizing specific substrates. Assimilation of substrate enriched in heavy isotope leads to incorporation of labelled atoms into microbial biomass. Density gradient ultracentrifugation retrieves labelled DNA for downstream molecular analyses.

DNA stable-isotope probing (DNA-SIP) is a powerful technique for identifying active microorganisms that assimilate particular carbon substrates and ...

Generation of RNA/DNA Hybrids in Genomic DNA by Transformation using RNA-containing Oligonucleotides

Synthetic short nucleic acid polymers, oligonucleotides (oligos), are the most functional and widespread tools of molecular biology. Oligos can be produced to contain any desired DNA or RNA sequence and can be prepared to include a wide variety of base and sugar modifications. Moreover, oligos can be designed to mimic specific nucleic acid alterations and thus, can serve as important tools to investigate effects of DNA damage and mechanisms of repair. We found that Thermo Scientific Dharmacon RNA-containing oligos with a length between 50 and 80 nucleotides can be particularly suitable to study, in vivo, functions and consequences of chromosomal RNA/DNA hybrids and of ribonucleotides embedded into DNA. RNA/DNA hybrids can readily form during DNA replication, repair and transcription, however, very little is known about the stability of RNA/DNA hybrids in cells and to which extent these hybrids can affect the genetic integrity of cells. RNA-containing oligos, therefore, represent a perfect vector to introduce ribonucleotides into chromosomal DNA and generate RNA/DNA hybrids of chosen length and base composition. Here we present the protocol for the incorporation of ribonucleotides into the genome of the eukaryotic model system yeast /Saccharomyces cerevisiae/. Yet, our lab has utilized Thermo Scientific Dharmacon RNA-containing oligos to generate RNA/DNA hybrids at the chromosomal level in different cell systems, from bacteria to human cells.

This work shows how to form an RNA/DNA hybrid at the chromosomal level and reveal transfer of genetic information from RNA to genomic DNA in yeast cells.

Synthetic short nucleic acid polymers, oligonucleotides (oligos), are the most functional and widespread tools of molecular biology. Oligos can be ...

Preparation of DNA-crosslinked Polyacrylamide Hydrogels

Mechanobiology is an emerging scientific area that addresses the critical role of physical cues in directing cell morphology and function. For example, the effect of tissue elasticity on cell function is a major area of mechanobiology research because tissue stiffness modulates with disease, development, and injury. Static tissue-mimicking materials, or materials that cannot alter stiffness once cells are plated, are predominately used to investigate the effects of tissue stiffness on cell functions. While information gathered from static studies is valuable, these studies are not indicative of the dynamic nature of the cellular microenvironment in vivo. To better address the effects of dynamic stiffness on cell function, we developed a DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogel system (DNA gels). Unlike other dynamic substrates, DNA gels have the ability to decrease or increase in stiffness after fabrication without stimuli. DNA gels consist of DNA crosslinks that are polymerized into a polyacrylamide backbone. Adding and removing crosslinks via delivery of single-stranded DNA allows temporal, spatial, and reversible control of gel elasticity. We have shown in previous reports that dynamic modulation of DNA gel elasticity influences fibroblast and neuron behavior. In this report and video, we provide a schematic that describes the DNA gel crosslinking mechanisms and step-by-step instructions on the preparation DNA gels.

Our laboratory has developed DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogels, a dynamic hydrogel system, to better understand the effects of modulating tissue stiffness on cell function. Here, we provide schematics, descriptions, and protocols to prepare these hydrogels.

Mechanobiology is an emerging scientific area that addresses the critical role of physical cues in directing cell morphology and function. For example, ...

Combining Single-molecule Manipulation and Imaging for the Study of Protein-DNA Interactions

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method offers the opportunity of investigating interactions occurring in solution (thus avoiding problems due to closeby surfaces as in other single molecule methods), controlling the DNA extension and tracking interaction dynamics as a function of both mechanical parameters and DNA sequence. The methods for establishing successful optical trapping and nanometer localization of single molecules are illustrated. We illustrate the experimental conditions allowing the study of interaction of lactose repressor (lacI), labeled with Atto532, with a DNA molecule containing specific target sequences (operators) for LacI binding. The method allows the observation of specific interactions at the operators, as well as one-dimensional diffusion of the protein during the process of target search. The method is broadly applicable to the study of protein-DNA interactions but also to molecular motors, where control of the tension applied to the partner track polymer (for example actin or microtubules) is desirable.

Here we describe the instrumentation and methods for detecting single fluorescently-labeled protein molecules interacting with a single DNA molecule suspended between two optically trapped microspheres.

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method ...

Real-time Imaging of Single Engineered RNA Transcripts in Living Cells Using Ratiometric Bimolecular Beacons

The growing realization that both the temporal and spatial regulation of gene expression can have important consequences on cell function has led to the development of diverse techniques to visualize individual RNA transcripts in single living cells. One promising technique that has recently been described utilizes an oligonucleotide-based optical probe, ratiometric bimolecular beacon (RBMB), to detect RNA transcripts that were engineered to contain at least four tandem repeats of the RBMB target sequence in the 3&#8217;-untranslated region. RBMBs are specifically designed to emit a bright fluorescent signal upon hybridization to complementary RNA, but otherwise remain quenched. The use of a synthetic probe in this approach allows photostable, red-shifted, and highly emissive organic dyes to be used for imaging. Binding of multiple RBMBs to the engineered RNA transcripts results in discrete fluorescence spots when viewed under a wide-field fluorescent microscope. Consequently, the movement of individual RNA transcripts can be readily visualized in real-time by taking a time series of fluorescent images. Here we describe the preparation and purification of RBMBs, delivery into cells by microporation and live-cell imaging of single RNA transcripts.

Ratiometric bimolecular beacons (RBMBs) can be used to image single engineered RNA transcripts in living cells. Here, we describe the preparation and purification of RBMBs, delivery of RBMBs into cells by microporation and fluorescent imaging of single RNA transcripts in real-time.

The growing realization that both the temporal and spatial regulation of gene expression can have important consequences on cell function has led to the ...

Studying DNA Looping by Single-Molecule FRET

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into nucleosomes. Thermodynamics of dsDNA bending has been studied by a method called cyclization which relies on DNA ligase to covalently join short sticky ends of a dsDNA. However, ligation efficiency can be affected by many factors that are not related to dsDNA looping such as the DNA structure surrounding the joined sticky ends, and ligase can also affect the apparent looping rate through mechanisms such as nonspecific binding. Here, we show how to measure dsDNA looping kinetics without ligase by detecting transient DNA loop formation by FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer). dsDNA molecules are constructed using a simple PCR-based protocol with a FRET pair and a biotin linker. The looping probability density known as the J factor is extracted from the looping rate and the annealing rate between two disconnected sticky ends. By testing two dsDNAs with different intrinsic curvatures, we show that the J factor is sensitive to the intrinsic shape of the dsDNA.

This study presents a detailed experimental procedure to measure looping dynamics of double-stranded DNA using single-molecule Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET). The protocol also describes how to extract the looping probability density called the J factor.

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into ...

Reduced-gravity Environment Hardware Demonstrations of a Prototype Miniaturized Flow Cytometer and Companion Microfluidic Mixing Technology

Until recently, astronaut blood samples were collected in-flight, transported to earth on the Space Shuttle, and analyzed in terrestrial laboratories. If humans are to travel beyond low Earth orbit, a transition towards space-ready, point-of-care (POC) testing is required. Such testing needs to be comprehensive, easy to perform in a reduced-gravity environment, and unaffected by the stresses of launch and spaceflight. Countless POC devices have been developed to mimic laboratory scale counterparts, but most have narrow applications and few have demonstrable use in an in-flight, reduced-gravity environment. In fact, demonstrations of biomedical diagnostics in reduced gravity are limited altogether, making component choice and certain logistical challenges difficult to approach when seeking to test new technology. To help fill the void, we are presenting a modular method for the construction and operation of a prototype blood diagnostic device and its associated parabolic flight test rig that meet the standards for flight-testing onboard a parabolic flight, reduced-gravity aircraft. The method first focuses on rig assembly for in-flight, reduced-gravity testing of a flow cytometer and a companion microfluidic mixing chip. Components are adaptable to other designs and some custom components, such as a microvolume sample loader and the micromixer may be of particular interest. The method then shifts focus to flight preparation, by offering guidelines and suggestions to prepare for a successful flight test with regard to user training, development of a standard operating procedure (SOP), and other issues. Finally, in-flight experimental procedures specific to our demonstrations are described.

Spaceflight blood diagnostics need innovation. Few demonstrations have been published illustrating in-flight, reduced-gravity health diagnostic technology. Here we present a method for construction and operation of a parabolic flight test rig for a prototype point-of-care flow-cytometry design, with components and preparation strategies adaptable to other setups.

Until recently, astronaut blood samples were collected in-flight, transported to earth on the Space Shuttle, and analyzed in terrestrial laboratories. If ...

A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters

The last 15 years have been characterized by an explosion in the ability to overexpress and purify membrane proteins from prokaryotic organisms as well as from eukaryotes. This increase has been largely driven by the successful push to obtain structural information on membrane proteins. However, the ability to functionally interrogate these proteins has not advanced at the same rate and is often limited to qualitative assays of limited quantitative value, thereby limiting the mechanistic insights that they can provide. An assay to quantitatively investigate the transport activity of reconstituted Cl- channels or transporters is described. The assay is based on the measure of the efflux rate of Cl- from proteoliposomes following the addition of the K+ ionophore valinomycin to shunt the membrane potential. An ion sensitive electrode is used to follow the time-course of ion efflux from proteoliposomes reconstituted with the desired protein. The method is highly suited for mechanistic studies, as it allows for the quantitative determination of key properties of the reconstituted protein, such as its unitary transport rate, the fraction of active protein and the molecular mass of the functional unit. The assay can also be utilized to determine the effect of small molecule compounds that directly inhibit/activate the reconstituted protein, as well as to test the modulatory effects of the membrane composition or lipid-modifying reagents. Where possible, direct comparison between results obtained using this method were found to be in good agreement with those obtained using electrophysiological approaches. The technique is illustrated using CLC-ec1, a CLC-type H+/Cl- exchanger, as a model system. The efflux assay can be utilized to study any Cl- conducting channel/transporter and, with minimal changes, can be adapted to study any ion-transporting protein.

A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters

Proteoliposomes are used to study purified channels and transporters reconstituted in a well-defined biochemical environment. An experimental procedure to measure efflux mediated by these proteins is illustrated. The steps to prepare proteoliposomes, perform the recordings, and analyze data to quantitatively determine the functional properties of the reconstituted protein are described.

The last 15 years have been characterized by an explosion in the ability to overexpress and purify membrane proteins from prokaryotic organisms as well as ...