We are grateful for the support of the NREF foundation.

NOTE: Ethics Statement: All procedures discussed in this manuscript are in accordance with the NIH guidelines for Animal Research (Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals) and are approved by the Harvard Medical School IACUC Committee.
1. Pre-surgical Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Make sure that all surgical instruments are sterilized by either autoclaving or by cleansing with antiseptic solution and/or ethanol as necessary. Where possible, use sterile disposable equipment such as scalpels,...

Following the landmark work by Benabid et al. in using deep brain stimulation to treat Parkinson&#8217;s disease and essential tremor, the DBS surgical technique has been investigated with much interest over the past decade to treat many neurological disorders6,10,43. DBS studies targeting various neuro-anatomical regions of the brain circuitry are currently performed by many groups to address major neuronal diseases and are in various stages of clinical trials. Stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus ...

The history behind the development of Deep Brain Stimulation as a neurosurgical technique dates back to the 1870s when the possibility of electrically stimulating the brain circuitry was explored2. The use of chronic high-frequency stimulation as treatment for neuronal disorders started in the 1960s3. Later in the 1990s with the advent of chronic implantation DBS electrodes4-6, the number of neuronal disorders that were treated by DBS continued to increase. Deep Brain Stimulation was first used in the United States as a treatment for essential tremor6. Today the surgery is used widely to treat neuronal disorders that are currently untreatable by pharmacological intervention. DBS is currently used to treat movement disorders of Parkinson&#8217;s disease and dystonia7-9. Alzheimer&#8217;s type dementia, Huntington&#8217;s disease, epilepsy, pain and neuropsychiatric diseases such depression, OCD, Tourette&#8217;s syndrome and addiction are some of the conditions amenable to treatment by DBS10-12. While DBS surgery is FDA approved for treating Parkinson&#8217;s disease, dystonia and essential tremor, the use of DBS for treating other conditions mentioned above are in various stages of lab and clinical studies offering much promise to patients13,14.
Clinically, DBS surgery is performed in two stages. The first stage involves surgically positioning the DBS electrodes at the targeted anatomical location using a combination of radiological positioning, CT, MRI as well as microelectrode readings for enhanced precision. The second stage involves implanting a pulse generator in the patient&#8217;s upper chest and installing extension leads from the scalp to the pulse generator. Based on the neurological condition, several programming schemes for the pulse generator have been standardized and will be used to deliver the desired voltage. The final voltage is reached in a stepwise fashion so as to receive the best clinical response with minimal voltage15. However, in our studies, unlike the chronic DBS implants used clinically, for the sake of simplicity, we have resorted to studying a one-time high frequency stimulation (for 1 hr) in our animal models.
Part of our group&#8217;s research focuses on investigating the use of DBS surgery for treatment-refractory epilepsy. Stereotactic surgical approaches using high frequency stimulation has been explored by many others as an effective option to treat medically-refractory epilepsy which constitutes about 30% of all incidences of epilepsy10,16,17. Cerebellar stimulation targeting the cortical surface as well as the deep cerebellar nuclei have been used in the past as targets to treat epilepsy10,18,19. In addition, hippocampus stimulation has also been tried but with mixed results20,21. Some of the other investigated DBS targets for epilepsy include the cerebral cortex, thalamus, subthalamic nucleus and vagus nerve8. However, following results from several studies in the past few years, the anterior thalamic nucleus (ATN) has emerged as the most common DBS target for epilepsy treatment10,22. Based on knowledge about neuroanatomical circuitry and findings from animal models, several studies have focused on the therapeutic effect of deep brain stimulation of the ATN in treating epilepsy 23-26. The ATN is part of the limbic circuit and is located in the region of the brain that affects seizure frequency. Studies by Hamani et al., have tested the efficacy of ATN-DBS in a pilocarpine induced epilepsy model and found that bilateral ATN stimulation prolonged latencies for pilocarpine-induced seizures and status epilepticus24. Furthermore, high frequency stimulation of the ATN was found to reduce seizure frequency in a pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) model of epilepsy25,27-29. Lee et al., have reported a mean reduction in seizure frequency by about 75% upon chronic deep brain stimulation of the ATN in treating refractory partial epilepsy30.
A recent clinical study on treatment-refractory epilepsy has shown promising results after DBS surgery targeting the anterior thalamic nucleus (ATN)22. A multicenter randomized clinical trial with 110 patients undergoing bilateral DBS of the ATN for treatment refractory epilepsy (SANTE trial) indicated a drop in seizure frequency by approximately 40%31. The results from this study also hinted on a delayed optimal anti-epileptic effect observed at 2-3 months post surgery. Further studies by Toda et al., corroborated with these findings where they demonstrated neurogenesis happening at a later time post DBS (days 3-5) in animal models1. In addition, Encinas et al., have reported hippocampal neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus after high frequency stimulation of the ATN32. Previous studies33-35 have reported declining hippocampal neurogenesis in certain epileptic cases such as chronic temporal lobe epilepsy and an association with learning deficits, memory impairment and spontaneous recurrent motor seizures. Furthermore, there was a reduction in neural stem cell progenitor factors such as FGF2 and IGF-1 in the chronically epileptic hippocampus in animal models 33. Considering this, interventional strategies such as DBS that show an augmentation of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus are exciting avenues for research. These findings have encouraged us to explore further deeply into the mechanism underlying neurogenesis post-DBS treatment for epilepsy. We have targeted the ATN both unilaterally (data not reported) as well as bilaterally (in representative results) and seen elevated neurotrophin (BDNF) expression in the rat dentate gyrus. Our current hypothesis is that BDNF expression initiates a gene expression cascade that culminates in neurogenesis that translates to the anti-epileptic effect of DBS surgery. In this paper, we present our methods for DBS surgery targeting the ATN in rats followed by gene expression analysis as an attractive approach to study the mechanism underlying the benefits of DBS.

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			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:236px;">Deep Brain Stimulation Surgery</td>
			<td style="width:229px;"></td>
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			<td style="width:604px;"></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Reagent/Equipment</td>
			<td>Vendor Name</td>
			<td>Catalog No.&#160;</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Stereotactic frame</td>
			<td>Kopf Instruments</td>
			<td>Model 900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Drill&#160;</td>
			<td>Dremmel</td>
			<td>7700, 7.2 V</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Scalpel</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>372610</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ketamine</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-803-6637</td>
			<td>Schedule III Controlled Substance, procurement, use and storage according to institutional rules</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Xylazine</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-808-1947</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Buprenorphine</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-850-2280</td>
			<td>Schedule III Controlled Substance, procurement, use and storage according to institutional rules</td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Surgical staples</td>
			<td>ConMed Corporation</td>
			<td>8035</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sutures (3-0)&#160;</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>72-3333</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Syringe (1 ml, 29 1/2 G)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>329464</td>
			<td>Sterile, use for Anesthesia administration intraperitoneally</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Syringe (3 ml, 25 G)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>309570</td>
			<td>Sterile, use for Analgesia administration subcutaneously</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Needles</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>305761</td>
			<td>Sterile, use for clearing broken bone pieces from the burr holes</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ethanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S25309B</td>
			<td>Use for general sterilization&#160;</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Eye Lubricant</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>19-898-350</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Stimulator</td>
			<td>Medtronic</td>
			<td>Model 3628</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DBS electrodes</td>
			<td>Rhodes Medical Instruments, CA</td>
			<td>SNEX100x-100mm</td>
			<td>Electrodes are platinum, concentric and bipolar</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Betadine (Povidone-Iodine)&#160;</td>
			<td>PDI</td>
			<td>S23125</td>
			<td>Single use swabsticks, use for sterilizing the scalp before making incision&#160;</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td colspan="2" height="25" style="height:25px;">&#160;Brain Dissection and Hippocampal tissue isolation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Reagent/Equipment</td>
			<td>Vendor Name</td>
			<td>Catalog No.&#160;</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Acrylic Rodent Brain Matrix</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>175-300</td>
			<td>www.emsdiasum.com</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Razor Blade</td>
			<td>V W R</td>
			<td>55411-050</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Guillotine Scissors</td>
			<td>Clauss</td>
			<td>18039</td>
			<td>For decapitation, make sure these scissors are maintained in clean and working condition</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Scissors</td>
			<td>Codman Classic</td>
			<td>34-4098</td>
			<td>Use for removing the brain from the skull</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Forceps</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>72957-06</td>
			<td>Use for removing the brain from the skull and for handling during dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Phosphate Buffered Saline&#160;</td>
			<td>Boston Bioproducts</td>
			<td>BM-220</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="25">
			<td colspan="2" height="25" style="height:25px;">&#160;RNA Extraction and cDNA Preparation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Reagent/Equipment</td>
			<td>Vendor Name</td>
			<td>Catalog No.&#160;</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Tri Reagent</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T9424</td>
			<td>Always use in a fume hood and wear protective goggles while handling; avoid contact with skin</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Syringe (3 ml, 25 G)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>309570</td>
			<td>Use for tissue homogenization</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Chloroform</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1145-1</td>
			<td>Always use in a fume hood and wear protective goggles while handling; avoid contact with skin</td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A416-1</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Glycogen</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>R0561</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Dnase I Kit</td>
			<td>Ambion</td>
			<td>AM1906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Superscript First Strand Synthesis Kit</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>11904-018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Tabletop Microcentrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5415D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">&#160;Quantitative PCR</td>
			<td>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Reagent/Equipment</td>
			<td>Vendor Name</td>
			<td>Catalog No.&#160;</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">SYBR Green PCR Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>204143</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Custom Oligos</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10668051</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PCR Plates (96 wells)</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific</td>
			<td>C18080-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Optical Adhesive Sheets</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>AB1170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Nuclease free Water</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>SH30538-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Real Time PCR Machine</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems</td>
			<td>7500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analysis of gene expression changes in the rat hippocampus after deep brain stimulation of the anterior thalamic nucleus

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, targeting various regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia, thalamus, and subthalamic regions, is an effective treatment for several movement disorders that have failed to respond to medication. Recent progress in the field of DBS surgery has begun to extend the application of this surgical technique to other conditions as diverse as morbid obesity, depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. Despite these expanding indications, little is known about the underlying physiological mechanisms that facilitate the beneficial effects of DBS surgery. One approach to this question is to perform gene expression analysis in neurons that receive the electrical stimulation. Previous studies have shown that neurogenesis in the rat dentate gyrus is elicited in DBS targeting of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus1. DBS surgery targeting the ATN is used widely for treatment refractory epilepsy. It is thus of much interest for us to explore the transcriptional changes induced by electrically stimulating the ATN. In this manuscript, we describe our methodologies for stereotactically-guided DBS surgery targeting the ATN in adult male Wistar rats. We also discuss the subsequent steps for tissue dissection, RNA isolation, cDNA preparation and quantitative RT-PCR for measuring gene expression changes. This method could be applied and modified for stimulating the basal ganglia and other regions of the brain commonly clinically targeted. The gene expression study described here assumes a candidate target gene approach for discovering molecular players that could be directing the mechanism for DBS.

Figures 1A and 1B show the relative expression of BDNF and GABRD relative to the control gene &#946;-actin. BDNF, a neurotrophin is often associated with neuroprotective effects in many neuronal diseases38-41. It is therefore interesting to analyze the expression profile of BDNF in response to stimulation of the ATN which yields therapeutic benefits to epileptic patients. In Figure 1A which shows the gene expression profile of BDNF across the indicated time-po...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analysis of Gene Expression Changes in the Rat Hippocampus After Deep Brain Stimulation of the Anterior Thalamic Nucleus at JoVE.com

Analysis of Gene Expression Changes in the Rat Hippocampus After Deep Brain Stimulation of the Anterior Thalamic Nucleus

The mechanism underlying the therapeutic effects of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) surgery needs investigation. The methods presented in this manuscript describe an experimental approach to examine the cellular events triggered by DBS by analyzing the gene expression profile of candidate genes that can facilitate neurogenesis post DBS surgery.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, targeting various regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia, thalamus, and subthalamic regions, is an effective ...

analysis-gene-expression-changes-rat-hippocampus-after-deep-brain

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

10.8K vistas.  Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School. The mechanism underlying the therapeutic effects of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) surgery needs investigation. The methods presented in this manuscript describe an experimental approach to examine the cellular events triggered by DBS by analyzing the gene expression profile of candidate genes that can facilitate neurogenesis post DBS surgery.

Video: Analysis of Gene Expression Changes in the Rat Hippocampus After Deep Brain Stimulation of the Anterior Thalamic Nucleus

TMS: Using the Theta-Burst Protocol to Explore Mechanism of Plasticity in Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome and Autism

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS display abnormalities in the expression of FMR1 - a protein required for typical, healthy neural development.3 Recent data has suggested that the loss of this protein can cause the cortex to be hyperexcitable thereby affecting overall patterns of neural plasticity.4,5
In addition, Fragile X shows a strong comorbidity with autism: in fact, 30% of children with FXS are diagnosed with autism, and 2 - 5% of autistic children suffer from FXS.6
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability via the application of localized magnetic field pulses 7,8) represents a unique method of exploring plasticity and the manifestations of FXS within affected individuals. More specifically, Theta-Burst Stimulation (TBS), a specific stimulatory protocol shown to modulate cortical plasticity for a duration up to 30 minutes after stimulation cessation in healthy populations, has already proven an efficacious tool in the exploration of abnormal plasticity.9,10 
Recent studies have shown the effects of TBS last considerably longer in individuals on the autistic spectrum - up to 90 minutes.11 This extended effect-duration suggests an underlying abnormality in the brain's natural plasticity state in autistic individuals - similar to the hyperexcitability induced by Fragile X Syndrome.
In this experiment, utilizing single-pulse motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) as our benchmark, we will explore the effects of both intermittent and continuous TBS on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from FXS and individuals on the Autistic Spectrum.

In this article, we examine the effects of Theta-Burst TMS stimulation on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from Fragile X syndrome and individuals on the autistic spectrum.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS ...

The NeuroStar TMS Device: Conducting the FDA Approved Protocol for Treatment of Depression

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic fields. These rapidly alternating fields induce electrical currents within localized, targeted regions of the cortex which are associated with various physiological and functional brain changes.1,2,3
In 2007, O'Reardon et al., utilizing the NeuroStar device, published the results of an industry-sponsored, multisite, randomized, sham-stimulation controlled clinical trial in which 301 patients with major depression, who had previously failed to respond to at least one adequate antidepressant treatment trial, underwent either active or sham TMS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The patients, who were medication-free at the time of the study, received TMS five times per week over 4-6 weeks.4
The results demonstrated that a sub-population of patients (those who were relatively less resistant to medication, having failed not more than two good pharmacologic trials) showed a statistically significant improvement on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Scale (MADRS), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD), and various other outcome measures. In October 2008, supported by these and other similar results5,6,7, Neuronetics obtained the first and only Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the clinical treatment of a specific form of medication-refractory depression using a TMS Therapy device (FDA approval K061053).
In this paper, we will explore the specified FDA approved NeuroStar depression treatment protocol (to be administered only under prescription and by a licensed medical profession in either an in- or outpatient setting).

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the FDA approved depression treatment protocol using the Neuronetics NeuroStar TMS device.

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic ...

Spinal Cord Electrophysiology II: Extracellular Suction Electrode Fabrication

Development of neural circuitries and locomotion can be studied using neonatal rodent spinal cord central pattern generator (CPG) behavior. We demonstrate a method to fabricate suction electrodes that are used to examine CPG activity, or fictive locomotion, in dissected rodent spinal cords. The rodent spinal cords are placed in artificial cerebrospinal fluid and the ventral roots are drawn into the suction electrode. The electrode is constructed by modifying a commercially available suction electrode. A heavier silver wire is used instead of the standard wire given by the commercially available electrode. The glass tip on the commercial electrode is replaced with a plastic tip for increased durability. We prepare hand drawn electrodes and electrodes made from specific sizes of tubing, allowing consistency and reproducibility. Data is collected using an amplifier and neurogram acquisition software. Recordings are performed on an air table within a Faraday cage to prevent mechanical and electrical interference, respectively.

A demonstration of the fabrication and use of an extracellular suction electrode used to measure electrophysiological recordings of neonatal rodent spinal cords in vitro

Development of neural circuitries and locomotion can be studied using neonatal rodent spinal cord central pattern generator (CPG) behavior. We demonstrate ...

Optimized Analysis of DNA Methylation and Gene Expression from Small, Anatomically-defined Areas of the Brain

Exposure to diet, drugs and early life adversity during sensitive windows of life 1,2 can lead to lasting changes in gene expression that contribute to the display of physiological and behavioural phenotypes. Such environmental programming is likely to increase the susceptibility to metabolic, cardiovascular and mental diseases 3,4.
DNA methylation and histone modifications are considered key processes in the mediation of the gene-environment dialogue and appear also to underlay environmental programming 5. In mammals, DNA methylation typically comprises the covalent addition of a methyl group at the 5-position of cytosine within the context of CpG dinucleotides.
CpG methylation occurs in a highly tissue- and cell-specific manner making it a challenge to study discrete, small regions of the brain where cellular heterogeneity is high and tissue quantity limited. Moreover, because gene expression and methylation are closely linked events, increased value can be gained by comparing both parameters in the same sample.
Here, a step-by-step protocol (Figure 1) for the investigation of epigenetic programming in the brain is presented using the 'maternal separation' paradigm of early life adversity for illustrative purposes. The protocol describes the preparation of micropunches from differentially-aged mouse brains from which DNA and RNA can be simultaneously isolated, thus allowing DNA methylation and gene expression analyses in the same sample.

A streamlined workflow to study DNA methylation and gene expression changes upon early-life stress is shown. Starting from maternal separation of newborn mice and isolation of discrete brain tissues, we represent a protocol to simultaneously isolate DNA and RNA from brain tissue punches for subsequent bisulfite sequencing and RT-PCR analysis.

Exposure to diet, drugs and early life adversity during sensitive windows of life 1,2 can lead to lasting changes in gene expression that contribute to ...

Laser Capture Microdissection of Enriched Populations of Neurons or Single Neurons for Gene Expression Analysis After Traumatic Brain Injury

Long-term cognitive disability after TBI is associated with injury-induced neurodegeneration in the hippocampus-a region in the medial temporal lobe that is critical for learning, memory and executive function.1,2 Hence our studies focus on gene expression analysis of specific neuronal populations in distinct subregions of the hippocampus. The technique of laser capture microdissection (LCM), introduced in 1996 by Emmert-Buck, et al.,3 has allowed for significant advances in gene expression analysis of single cells and enriched populations of cells from heterogeneous tissues such as the mammalian brain that contains thousands of functional cell types.4 We use LCM and a well established rat model of traumatic brain injury (TBI) to investigate the molecular mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of TBI. Following fluid-percussion TBI, brains are removed at pre-determined times post-injury, immediately frozen on dry ice, and prepared for sectioning in a cryostat. The rat brains can be embedded in OCT and sectioned immediately, or stored several months at -80 &deg;C before sectioning for laser capture microdissection. Additionally, we use LCM to study the effects of TBI on circadian rhythms. For this, we capture neurons from the suprachiasmatic nuclei that contain the master clock of the mammalian brain. Here, we demonstrate the use of LCM to obtain single identified neurons (injured and degenerating, Fluoro-Jade-positive, or uninjured, Fluoro-Jade-negative) and enriched populations of hippocampal neurons for subsequent gene expression analysis by real time PCR and/or whole-genome microarrays. These LCM-enabled studies have revealed that the selective vulnerability of anatomically distinct regions of the rat hippocampus are reflected in the different gene expression profiles of different populations of neurons obtained by LCM from these distinct regions. The results from our single-cell studies, where we compare the transcriptional profiles of dying and adjacent surviving hippocampal neurons, suggest the existence of a cell survival rheostat that regulates cell death and survival after TBI.

We describe how to use laser capture microdissection (LCM) to obtain enriched populations of hippocampal neurons or single neurons from frozen sections of the injured rat brain for subsequent gene expression analysis using quantitative real time PCR and/or whole-genome microarrays.

Long-term cognitive disability after TBI is associated with injury-induced neurodegeneration in the hippocampus-a region in the medial temporal lobe that ...

Micromanipulation of Gene Expression in the Adult Zebrafish Brain Using Cerebroventricular Microinjection of Morpholino Oligonucleotides

Manipulation of gene expression in tissues is required to perform functional studies. In this paper, we demonstrate the cerebroventricular microinjection (CVMI) technique as a means to modulate gene expression in the adult zebrafish brain. By using CVMI, substances can be administered into the cerebroventricular fluid and be thoroughly distributed along the rostrocaudal axis of the brain. We particularly focus on the use of antisense morpholino oligonucleotides, which are potent tools for knocking down gene expression in vivo. In our method, when applied, morpholino molecules are taken up by the cells lining the ventricular surface. These cells include the radial glial cells, which act as neurogenic progenitors. Therefore, knocking down gene expression in the radial glial cells is of utmost importance to analyze the widespread neurogenesis response in zebrafish, and also would provide insight into how vertebrates could sustain adult neurogenesis response. Such an understanding would also help the efforts for clinical applications in human neurodegenerative disorders and central nervous system regeneration. Thus, we present the cerebroventricular microinjection method as a quick and efficient way to alter gene expression and neurogenesis response in the adult zebrafish forebrain. We also provide troubleshooting tips and other useful information on how to carry out the CVMI procedure.

In this article, we demonstrate a method for manipulation of gene expression in the ventricular cells of the adult zebrafish telencephalon using antisense morpholino oligonucleotides. We present this method as an efficient and quick protocol that can be used for functional studies in the adult vertebrate brain.

Manipulation of gene expression in tissues is  required to perform functional studies. In this paper, we demonstrate the  cerebroventricular ...

Deep Brain Stimulation with Simultaneous fMRI in Rodents

In order to visualize the global and downstream neuronal responses to deep brain stimulation (DBS) at various targets, we have developed a protocol for using blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to image rodents with simultaneous DBS. DBS fMRI presents a number of technical challenges, including accuracy of electrode implantation, MR artifacts created by the electrode, choice of anesthesia and paralytic to minimize any neuronal effects while simultaneously eliminating animal motion, and maintenance of physiological parameters, deviation from which can confound the BOLD signal.&#160;Our laboratory has developed a set of procedures that are capable of overcoming most of these possible issues. For electrical stimulation, a homemade tungsten bipolar microelectrode is used, inserted stereotactically at the stimulation site in the anesthetized subject. In preparation for imaging, rodents are fixed on a plastic headpiece and transferred to the magnet bore. For sedation and paralysis during scanning, a cocktail of dexmedetomidine and pancuronium is continuously infused, along with a minimal dose of isoflurane; this preparation minimizes the BOLD ceiling effect of volatile anesthetics. In this example experiment, stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) produces BOLD responses which are observed primarily in ipsilateral cortical regions, centered in motor cortex. Simultaneous DBS and fMRI allows the unambiguous modulation of neural circuits dependent on stimulation location and stimulation parameters, and permits observation of neuronal modulations free of regional bias. This technique may be used to explore the downstream effects of modulating neural circuitry at nearly any brain region, with implications for both experimental and clinical DBS.

This protocol describes a standard method for simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging and deep brain stimulation in the rodent. The combined use of these experimental tools allows for the exploration of global downstream activity in response to electrical stimulation at virtually any brain target.

In order to visualize the global and downstream neuronal responses to deep brain stimulation (DBS) at various targets, we have developed a protocol for ...

Using Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting to Examine Cell-Type-Specific Gene Expression in Rat Brain Tissue

The brain is comprised of four primary cell types including neurons, astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes. Though they are not the most abundant cell type in the brain, neurons are the most widely studied of these cell types given their direct role in impacting behaviors. Other cell types in the brain also impact neuronal function and behavior via the signaling molecules they produce. Neuroscientists must understand the interactions between the cell types in the brain to better understand how these interactions impact neural function and disease. To date, the most common method of analyzing protein or gene expression utilizes the homogenization of whole tissue samples, usually with blood, and without regard for cell type. This approach is an informative approach for examining general changes in gene or protein expression that may influence neural function and behavior; however, this method of analysis does not lend itself to a greater understanding of cell-type-specific gene expression and the effect of cell-to-cell communication on neural function. Analysis of behavioral epigenetics has been an area of growing focus which examines how modifications of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) structure impact long-term gene expression and behavior; however, this information may only be relevant if analyzed in a cell-type-specific manner given the differential lineage and thus epigenetic markers that may be present on certain genes of individual neural cell types. The Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) technique described below provides a simple and effective way to isolate individual neural cells for the subsequent analysis of gene expression, protein expression, or epigenetic modifications of DNA. This technique can also be modified to isolate more specific neural cell types in the brain for subsequent cell-type-specific analysis.

The goal of this protocol is to use the fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) technique to sort specific types of neural cells for subsequent analysis of cell-type-specific gene expression, epigenetic markers, and or protein expression.

The brain is comprised of four primary cell types including neurons, astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes. Though they are not the most abundant ...

Stereotaxic Infusion of Oligomeric Amyloid-beta into the Mouse Hippocampus

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the over-production of amyloid-beta and the deposition of amyloid-beta plaques in brain regions of the afflicted individuals. Throughout the years scientists have generated numerous Alzheimer&#8217;s disease mouse models that attempt to replicate the amyloid-beta pathology. Unfortunately, the mouse models only selectively mimic the disease features. Neuronal death, a prominent effect in the brains of Alzheimer&#8217;s disease patients, is noticeably lacking in these mice. Hence, we and others have employed a method of directly infusing soluble oligomeric species of amyloid-beta - forms of amyloid-beta that have been proven to be most toxic to neurons - stereotaxically into the brain. In this report we utilize male C57BL/6J mice to document this surgical technique of increasing amyloid-beta levels in a select brain region. The infusion target is the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus because this brain structure, along with the basal forebrain that is connected by the cholinergic circuit, represents one of the areas of degeneration in the disease. The results of elevating amyloid-beta in the dentate gyrus via stereotaxic infusion reveal increases in neuron loss in the dentate gyrus within 1 week, while there is a concomitant increase in cell death and cholinergic neuron loss in the vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca of the basal forebrain. These effects are observed up to 2 weeks. Our data suggests that the current amyloid-beta infusion model provides an alternative mouse model to address region specific neuron death in a short-term basis. The advantage of this model is that amyloid-beta can be elevated in a spatial and temporal manner.

Here, we present a protocol for direct stereotaxic brain infusion of amyloid-beta. This methodology provides an alternative in vivo mouse model to address the short-term effects of amyloid-beta on brain neurons.

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the ...

Microelectrode Guided Implantation of Electrodes into the Subthalamic Nucleus of Rats for Long-term Deep Brain Stimulation

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a widely used and effective therapy for several neurologic disorders, such as idiopathic Parkinson&#8217;s disease, dystonia or tremor. DBS is based on the delivery of electrical stimuli to specific deep anatomic structures of the central nervous system. However, the mechanisms underlying the effect of DBS remain enigmatic. This has led to an interest in investigating the impact of DBS in animal models, especially in rats. As DBS is a long-term therapy, research should be focused on molecular-genetic changes of neural circuits that occur several weeks after DBS. Long-term DBS in rats is challenging because the rats move around in their cage, which causes problems in keeping in place the wire leading from the head of the animal to the stimulator. Furthermore, target structures for stimulation in the rat brain are small and therefore electrodes cannot easily be placed at the required position. Thus, a set-up for long-lasting stimulation of rats using platinum/iridium electrodes with an impedance of about 1 M&#937; was developed for this study. An electrode with these specifications allows for not only adequate stimulation but also recording of deep brain structures to identify the target area for DBS. In our set-up, an electrode with a plug for the wire was embedded in dental cement with four anchoring screws secured onto the skull. The wire from the plug to the stimulator was protected by a stainless-steel spring. A swivel was connected to the circuit to prevent the wire from becoming tangled. Overall, this stimulation set-up offers a high degree of free mobility for the rat and enables the head plug, as well as the wire connection between the plug and the stimulator, to retain long-lasting strength.

A method for implanting electrodes into the subthalamic nucleus (STN) of rats is described. Better localization of the STN was achieved by using a microrecording system. Furthermore, a stimulation set-up is presented that is characterized by long-lasting connections between the head of the animal and the stimulator.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a widely used and effective therapy for several neurologic disorders, such as idiopathic Parkinson&#8217;s disease, ...