We thank Chris Benner for implementing the X. tropicalis genome (xenTro2, xenTro2r) into HOMER and the Gilchrist lab for discussions on post-sequencing analysis. I.P. assisted the GO term analysis. G.E.G and J.C.S. were supported by the Wellcome Trust and are now supported by the Medical Research Council (program number U117597140).

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Nuestro protocolo describe cómo realizar y analizar los perfiles de la cromatina en todo el genoma a partir de embriones de Xenopus. Cubre cada paso de las proteínas de reticulación a loci endógenos in vivo para procesar millones de lecturas que representa sitios genómicas enriquecidas en silico. Dado el creciente número de borradores del genoma están disponibles, este protocolo debe ser aplicable a otros organismos modelo y no modelo. La sección experimental más importante, lo que diferencia a este protocolo aparte del trabajo previo 8,31,33,34, es el procedimiento posterior a la fijación para extraer núcleos reticulados. Se facilita la solubilización de la cromatina eficiente y de cizallamiento y fácil ampliación de la escala. Junto con la mejora de la eficiencia de la preparación de la biblioteca este protocolo permite la construcción de bibliotecas-chip Sec de alta complejidad de la mitad a dos millones de células que expresan el epítopo asociada a la cromatina de interés. Para los experimentos chip-qPCR, algunos diez mil de estas células son normalmente suficientepara comprobar para el enriquecimiento de ADN en unos seis loci genómicos diferentes. Estos números son estimaciones conservadoras, pero puede variar dependiendo del nivel de expresión de la proteína, la calidad del anticuerpo, la eficiencia, y la accesibilidad epítopo de reticulación. Como una guía, un solo embrión de Xenopus contiene alrededor de 4.000 células en la etapa de mediados de blástula (8,5 después de Nieuwkoop y Faber 29), 40.000 células en la última etapa de gástrula (12) y 100.000 células en la fase tailbud temprana (20). La hora exacta de fijación para la inmunoprecipitación eficaz necesita ser determinado empíricamente por chip-qPCR (sección 10). En general, se requieren tiempos de fijación más largos si el experimento implica X. laevis embriones, primeras etapas de desarrollo, y propiedades de unión de ADN débiles (o indirectos). Sin embargo, no se recomienda la fijación de Xenopus embriones de más de 40 minutos, o el procesamiento de más embriones que los indicados (sección 3), cuya esquila cromatina se vuelve menos eficiente. Es importante noutilizar cualquier glicina después de la fijación ya que este paso común para saciar el formaldehído puede hacer extracción nuclear a partir de embriones de yema rica muy difíciles. Actualmente, no se conoce la razón de esto. Es concebible que el aducto de formaldehído glicina reacciona adicionalmente con grupos amino o residuos de arginina 35 N-terminal. El anticuerpo es clave para cualquier experimento de chip y controles suficientes necesita ser llevado a cabo para mostrar su especificidad para el epítopo de interés (ver directrices por Landt et al. 36). Si ningún anticuerpo chip-grado se encuentra disponible, la introducción de proteínas de fusión etiquetadas con epítopo correspondiente puede ser una alternativa legítima como estas proteínas pueden ocupar sitios de unión 37 endógeno. En este caso, los embriones no inyectados son los mejores para usar como un control negativo en lugar de un chip con suero no específico. Esta estrategia también se puede aplicar si la proteína de interés se expresa en niveles bajos resultantes en el pobre recuperación de enriADN ched. Como para la fabricación de bibliotecas-Chip SEQ, debido a la baja cantidad de ADN en uso, se recomienda optar por los procedimientos que reducen el número de pasos de limpieza y para reacciones combinan para mantener cualquier pérdida de ADN en un mínimo. Los adaptadores y cebadores tienen que ser compatibles con la secuenciación multiplex y la plataforma de NGS (véase la Tabla de Materiales Específicos / Equipo). Si se utiliza adaptadores Y (que contiene los brazos de una sola hebra de largo), es crítico para pre-amplificar la biblioteca con tres a cinco rondas de PCR antes de insertos de ADN de tamaño-seleccionar (por ejemplo., De 100 a 300 pb) mediante electroforesis en gel. Extremos de cadena simple causan fragmentos de ADN que migran de forma heterogénea. Trial se ejecuta con diferentes cantidades de ADN de entrada (por ejemplo, 0,1, 0,5, 1, 2, 5, 10 y 20 ng) se recomienda para determinar el número total de ciclos de PCR (menos de o igual a 18 ciclos) requerida para hacer un tamaño -seleccionado biblioteca de 100 a 200 ng. La reducción del número de ciclos de PCR hace que la secuenciación de redulee menos probable ndant. En fase sólida perlas de inmovilización reversibles son buena limpieza de reactivos para recuperar de manera eficiente el ADN de interés y fiable extraer cualquier adaptador y dímeros libres de la ligadura y reacciones de PCR. En términos de número, tipo y duración de la lee, alrededor de 20 y 30 millones de fin de lecturas simples de 36 pb es suficiente para la mayoría de los experimentos-chip Sec para cubrir todo el genoma Xenopus con la profundidad suficiente. Las máquinas NGS más prevalentes son rutinariamente capaz de satisfacer estos criterios. Sin embargo, puede ser beneficioso para aumentar el número de lecturas, si se espera que un amplias distribuciones de lee, como se observa con las modificaciones de histonas, en lugar de picos agudos. Para muchos experimentos-chip Sec, 4-5 bibliotecas diferente indexados se unen y se secuenciaron en el carril celular uno de flujo usando una máquina de NGS alto rendimiento. A veces también es aconsejable extender la longitud de lectura y la secuencia de los dos extremos de la plantilla de ADN (de extremo emparejado) para aumentar mapeabilidad wanalizar gallina cromatina dentro de las regiones genómicas repetitivas. Este protocolo se ha aplicado con éxito a una amplia variedad de características de la cromatina, tales como factores de transcripción, mediadores de señalización y las modificaciones de histonas post-traduccionales. Sin embargo, los embriones adquieren un creciente grado de heterogeneidad celular a medida que desarrollan y los perfiles de la cromatina se vuelven más difíciles de interpretar. Pasos prometedores se han hecho en Arabidopsis y Drosophila a los paisajes de la cromatina perfil específicamente mediante la extracción de tejido de tipo específico núcleos celulares 38,39. Nuestro protocolo incluye una etapa de extracción nuclear, que podría allanar el camino para que los tejidos específicos de chip-Sec en otros embriones.

The first attempts to characterize protein-DNA interactions in vivo were reported about 30 years ago in an effort to understand RNA polymerase-mediated gene transcription in bacteria and in the fruit fly1,2. Since then, the use of immunoprecipitation to enrich distinct chromatin features (ChIP) has been widely adopted to capture binding events and chromatin states with high efficiency3. Subsequently, with the emergence of powerful microarray technologies, this method led to the characterization of genome-wide chromatin landscapes4. More recently, chromatin profiling has become even more comprehensive and high-resolution, because millions of co-immunoprecipitated DNA templates can now be sequenced in parallel and mapped to the genome (ChIP-Seq)5. As increasing numbers of genome assemblies are available, ChIP-Seq is an attractive approach to learn more about the genome regulation that underlies biological processes. 
Here we provide a protocol to perform ChIP-Seq on yolk-rich embryos such as those of the frog Xenopus. Drafts of the genomes of both widely used Xenopus species&#8212;X. tropicalis and X. laevis&#8212;have now been released by the International Xenopus Genome Consortium6. The embryos of Xenopus species share many desirable features that facilitate and allow the interpretation of genome-wide chromatin studies, including the production of large numbers of high-quality embryos, the large size of the embryos themselves, and their external development. In addition, the embryos are amenable to classic and novel manipulations like cell lineage tracing, whole-mount in situ hybridisation, RNA overexpression, and TALEN/CRISPR-mediated knockout technology.
The following protocol builds on the work of Lee et al., Blythe et al. and Gentsch et al.7-9. Briefly, Xenopus embryos are formaldehyde-fixed at the developmental stage of interest to covalently bind (cross-link) proteins to their associated genomic DNA. After nuclear extraction, cross-linked chromatin is fragmented to focus subsequent sequencing on specific genomic binding or modification sites, and to minimize the contributions of flanking DNA sequences. Subsequently, the chromatin fragments are immunoprecipitated with a ChIP-grade antibody to enrich those containing the protein of interest. The co-immunoprecipitated DNA is stripped from the protein and purified before creating an indexed (paired-end) library for next-generation sequencing (NGS). At the end, simple command lines are offered for the post-sequencing analysis of ChIP-Seq data.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1/16 inch tapered microtip</td>
			<td>Qsonica</td>
			<td>4417</td>
			<td>This microtip is compatible with Sonicator 3000 from Misonix and Q500/700 from Qsonica.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8 ml glass sample vial with cap</td>
			<td>Wheaton</td>
			<td>224884</td>
			<td>8 ml clear glass sample vials for aqueous samples with 15-425 size phenolic rubber-lined screw caps.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adaptor</td>
			<td>IDT or Sigma</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>TruSeq universal adaptor, 
AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAG 
ATCTACACTCTTTCCCTACAC 
GACGCTCTTCCGATC*T. TruSeq indexed adaptor, 
P-GATCGGAAGAGCACACGTC 
TGAACTCCAGTCAC &#8208;NNNNNN&#8208; 
ATCTCGTATGCCGTCT TCTGCTT*G. *, phosphorothioate bondphosphate group at 5&#39; end. NNNNNN, index (see TruSeq ChIP Sample Preparation Guide for DNA sequence). Order adaptors HPLC purified. Adaptors can be prepared by combining equimolar amounts (each 100 &#181;M) of the universal and the indexed adaptor and cooling them down slowly from 95 &#176;C to room temperature. Use 1.5 pmol per ng of input DNA. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>b2g4pipe (software)</td>
			<td>Blast2GO</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://www.blast2go.com/data/blast2go/b2g4pipe_v2.5.zip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BLAST+ (software)</td>
			<td>Camacho et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi?PAGE_TYPE=BlastDocs&#38;DOC_TYPE=Download</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bowtie (software)</td>
			<td>Langmead et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://bowtie-bio.sourceforge.net/index.shtml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cisFinder (software)</td>
			<td>Sharov et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://lgsun.grc.nia.nih.gov/CisFinder/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chip for capillary electrophoresis</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>5067-1504</td>
			<td>Load this chip with 1 &#181;l DNA for library quality control. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chip-based capillary electrophoresis system</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>G2940CA</td>
			<td>The Agilent 2100 BioAnalyzer is used to check the quality of ChIP-Seq libraries. Keep reagents at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ChIP-Seq library preparation kit (KAPA Hyper Prep Kit)</td>
			<td>Kapa Biosystems</td>
			<td>KK8504</td>
			<td>Kit contains KAPA end repair and A-tailing enzyme mix, end Repair and A-tailing buffer, DNA ligase, ligation buffer, KAPA HiFi HotStart ReadyMix (2X), and KAPA library amplification primer mix (10X) (see also PCR primers). Adaptors are not included. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ChIP-Seq library preparation kit (alternative, ThruPLEX-FD Prep Kit)</td>
			<td>Rubicon Genomics</td>
			<td>R40048</td>
			<td>Kit uses their own stem-loop adaptors and primers. This kit eliminates intermediate purification steps and is as sensitive as the KAPA Hyper Prep Kit. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cluster3 (software)</td>
			<td>de Hoon et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://bonsai.hgc.jp/~mdehoon/software/cluster</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FastQC (software)</td>
			<td>Simon Andrews</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorometer</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>Q32866</td>
			<td>Qubit 2.0 Fluorometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorometer reagents</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>Q32851</td>
			<td>The kit provides concentrated assay reagent, dilution buffer, and pre-diluted DNA standards for the Qubit fluorometer. Store DNA standards at 4 &#176;C, buffer and dye at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F8775-4X25ML</td>
			<td>Formaldehyde solution, for molecular biology, 36.5-38% in H2O, stabilised with 10-15% methanol. Store at room temperature. CAUTION: Formaldehyde is corrosive and highly toxic.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel (E-Gel EX agarose , 2%)</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>G4010</td>
			<td>Pre-cast gel with 11 wells, openable format. Leave one lane between ladder and library empty to avoid cross-contamination. Store gels at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel electrophoresis system</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>G6465</td>
			<td>E-Gel iBase and E-Gel Safe Imager combo kit for size-selecting ChIP-Seq libraries.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel extraction kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28706</td>
			<td>Store all reagents at room temperature. Use 500 &#181;l of QG buffer per 100 mg of 2% agarose gel slice to extract DNA. Use MinElute columns (from MinElute PCR purification kit) to elute DNA twice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HOMER (software)</td>
			<td>Chris Benner</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://homer.salk.edu/homer/index.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybridization oven</td>
			<td>Techne</td>
			<td>FHB1D</td>
			<td>Hybridizer HB-1D</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IGV (software)</td>
			<td>Robinson et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/home</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illumina CASAVA-1.8 quality filter (software)</td>
			<td>Assaf Gordon</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://cancan.cshl.edu/labmembers/gordon/fastq_illumina_filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Java TreeView (software)</td>
			<td>Alok Saldanha</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://jtreeview.sourceforge.net</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laboratory jack</td>
			<td>Edu-Lab</td>
			<td>CH0642</td>
			<td>This jack is used to elevate sample in sound enclosure for sonication.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ladder, 100 bp</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>N3231</td>
			<td>Keep 1x solution at room temperature. Store stock at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ladder, 1 kb</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>N3232</td>
			<td>Keep 1x solution at room temperature. Store stock at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low-retention 1.5-ml microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>AM12450</td>
			<td>nonstick, RNase-free microfuge tubes, 1.5 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MACS2 (software)</td>
			<td>Tao Liu</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>https://github.com/taoliu/MACS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>11201D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with affinity purified polyclonal sheep anti-mouse IgG covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>11203D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with affinity purified polyclonal sheep anti-rabbit IgG covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>10001D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with recombinant protein A covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic beads</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>10003D</td>
			<td>These Dynabeads are superparamagnetic beads with recombinant protein G covalently bound to the bead surface. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic rack</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>12321D</td>
			<td>DynaMag-2 magnet</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEME</td>
			<td>Bailey et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://meme.nbcr.net/meme/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na3VO4</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>P0758</td>
			<td>Sodium orthovanadate (100 mM) is a commonly used general inhibitor for protein phosphotyrosyl phosphatases. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaF</td>
			<td>New England BioLabs</td>
			<td>P0759</td>
			<td>Sodium fluoride (500 mM) is commonly used as general inhibitor of phosphoseryl and phosphothreonyl phosphatases. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NGS machine</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>SY-301-1301</td>
			<td>Genome Analyzer IIx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NGS machine (high performance)</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>SY-401-2501</td>
			<td>HiSeq</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal serum (antibody control)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2028</td>
			<td>Use as control for goat polyclonal IgG antibodies in ChIP-qPCR experiments. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal serum (antibody control)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2025</td>
			<td>Use as control for mouse polyclonal IgG antibodies in ChIP-qPCR experiments. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal serum (antibody control)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2027</td>
			<td>Use as control for rabbit polyclonal IgG antibodies in ChIP-qPCR experiments. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nucleic acid staining solution</td>
			<td>iNtRON</td>
			<td>21141</td>
			<td>Use RedSafe nucleic acid staining solution at 1:50,000. Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orange G</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>O3756-25G</td>
			<td>1-Phenylazo-2-naphthol-6,8-disulfonic acid disodium salt. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR primers</td>
			<td>e.g., IDT or Sigma</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Primers to enrich adaptor-ligated DNA fragments by PCR: AATGATACGGCGACCACCGA*G and CAAGCAGAAGACGGCATACGA*G, phosphorothioate bond. Primers designed by Ethan Ford. Combine primers at 5 &#181;M each. Use 5 &#181;l in a 50 &#181;l PCR reaction. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MinElute PCR purification kit&#160;</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28006</td>
			<td>for purification of ChIP-qPCR and shearing test samples. Store MinElute spin columns at 4 &#176;C, all other buffers and collection tubes at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1, pH 7.9)</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>AM9730</td>
			<td>Phenol:Chloroform:IAA (25:24:1) is premixed and supplied at pH 6.6. Use provided Tris alkaline buffer to raise pH to 7.9. Store at 4 &#176;C. CAUTION: phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol is corrosive, highly toxic and combustible.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primer3 (software)</td>
			<td>Steve Rozen &#38; Helen Skaletsky</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://biotools.umassmed.edu/bioapps/primer3_www.cgi</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease inhibitor tablets</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11836170001</td>
			<td>cOmplete, Mini, EDTA-free. Use 1 tablet per 10 ml. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease inhibitor tablets</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11873580001</td>
			<td>cOmplete, EDTA-free. Use 1 tablet per 50 ml. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteinase K</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>AM2548</td>
			<td>proteinase K solution (20 &#181;g/&#181;l). Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNase A</td>
			<td>life technologies</td>
			<td>12091-039</td>
			<td>RNase A (20 &#181;g/&#181;l). Store at room temperature.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotator</td>
			<td>Stuart</td>
			<td>SB3</td>
			<td>Rotator SB3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SAMtools (software)</td>
			<td>Li et al.</td>
			<td>non-commercial</td>
			<td>http://samtools.sourceforge.neta</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solid phase reversible immobilisation beads</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>A63882</td>
			<td>The Agencourt AMPure XP beads are used to minimise adaptor dimer contamination in ChIP-Seq libraries. Store at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sonicator 3000</td>
			<td>Misonix/Qsonica</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Newer models are now available. Q125, Q500 or Q700 are all suitable for shearing crosslinked chromatin.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sound enclosure</td>
			<td>Misonix/Qsonica</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>optional: follow the manufacturer&#39;s recommendation to obtain the correct sound enclosure.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>22670000</td>
			<td>Thermomixer for 24 x 1.5 mL tubes. Precise temperature control from 4 &#176;C above room temperature to 99 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

genome-wide snapshot of chromatin regulators and states in xenopus embryos by chip-seq

The recruitment of chromatin regulators and the assignment of chromatin states to specific genomic loci are pivotal to cell fate decisions and tissue and organ formation during development. Determining the locations and levels of such chromatin features in vivo will provide valuable information about the spatio-temporal regulation of genomic elements, and will support aspirations to mimic embryonic tissue development in vitro. The most commonly used method for genome-wide and high-resolution profiling is chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by next-generation sequencing (ChIP-Seq). This protocol outlines how yolk-rich embryos such as those of the frog Xenopus can be processed for ChIP-Seq experiments, and it offers simple command lines for post-sequencing analysis. Because of the high efficiency with which the protocol extracts nuclei from formaldehyde-fixed tissue, the method allows easy upscaling to obtain enough ChIP material for genome-wide profiling. Our protocol has been used successfully to map various DNA-binding proteins such as transcription factors, signaling mediators, components of the transcription machinery, chromatin modifiers and post-translational histone modifications, and for this to be done at various stages of embryogenesis. Lastly, this protocol should be widely applicable to other model and non-model organisms as more and more genome assemblies become available.

Se espera que los resultados equivalentes a los que aquí se presenta si el protocolo es bien ejecutado y el anticuerpo en uso es de calidad chip-grado (véase la discusión). Este protocolo permite la extracción de los núcleos de embriones de Xenopus de formaldehído-fijo y la esquila eficiente de la cromatina por sonicación (Figura 1A-C). Cromatina esquilada muestra una distribución asimétrica de los fragmentos de ADN que van principalmente de 100 a 1000 pb y alcanzando un máximo entre 300 y 500 pb (Figura 1C). Se requiere un mínimo de 50 pg de ADN immunoprecipitated de realizar con éxito una gama emparejado biblioteca-chip Sec indexados con insertos de ADN de tamaño similar (Figura 2A). La biblioteca debe ser en gran medida carente de dímeros de adaptador, que se pueden ver en el electroferograma aproximadamente a 120 pb. Tras la secuenciación por síntesis, pre-procesado lee se asignan al genoma (Figura 2 B, C). En un experimento exitoso con <em&gt; X. embriones tropicalis, normalmente 50 a 70% de un solo extremo lee de 40 pb puede ser asignada única para el conjunto de genoma de v7.1 con como máximo dos desajustes. Mientras lee de entrada alinear bastante uniformemente en todo el genoma, la alineación de Chip lee los resultados en enriquecimientos específicos de cadena que flanquean la característica de la cromatina de interés. Esto es porque todos los fragmentos son secuenciados desde el extremo 5 &#39;(Figura 2C) 25. La extensión de la alineación en la dirección de lectura a un tamaño medio fragmento produce perfiles exactos para las características individuales de la cromatina, tales como eventos de unión a factor de transcripción. Estas ocupaciones de ADN aparecen como picos cuando se visualizan en el IGV o cualquier otro genoma navegador compatible. Las personas que llaman pico como MACS se utilizan para determinar la localización de estos picos (Figura 3A). De esta manera decenas de miles de sitios de unión han sido determinados en el X. tropicalis genoma de factores de transcripción T-box como Vegt 26. Chip-qPCR expementos deben confirmar el enriquecimiento local de encontrado por chip-Sec (Figura 3B). Experimentos-chip Sec permiten explorar las características de todo el genoma de las características de la cromatina. Por ejemplo, el cálculo de la distribución de lectura sobre los elementos genómicos, como inicio de la transcripción y sitios de terminación puede resaltar cualquier preferencia vinculantes espaciales alrededor de genes (Figura 3C). Del mismo modo, un mapa de calor de las distribuciones de lectura en lugares pico se utiliza para comparar las diferentes características de la cromatina en un genoma de gran escala (Figura 3D). Ciertos factores de transcripción se unen secuencia de ADN específica. De novo motivo de análisis de picos subyacentes de ADN genómico puede recuperar este tipo de información, incluyendo enriquecida con Co motivos de co-factores potenciales (Figura 3E). La gran mayoría de los genes diana mostrar ocupación de ADN a un menor en vez de mayor nivel (Figura 3F). Esta característica libre de escala parece ser bastante común entre los trfactores anscription y sugiere que sólo una pequeña fracción de los genes diana están regulados directamente con relevancia biológica 27,28. El análisis de los términos de GO enriquecido u otros atributos como la expresión diferencial de genes diana puede revelar más conocimientos sobre la función biológica de la función de la cromatina en el embrión de Xenopus (Figura 3G). <img alt="Figura 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig1highres.jpg" /> Figura 1. La cromatina procedimiento de inmunoprecipitación para los embriones de Xenopus. Embriones (A) son formaldehído-fijo en la etapa de desarrollo de interés para unen covalentemente (entrecruzamiento) cualquiera de las proteínas asociadas con el ADN genómico. Tras la extracción nuclear (B), la cromatina reticulada se fragmenta para reducir de unión al ADN genómico o sitios de modificación de la cromatina minimizando el DN flanqueandoUna secuencia (C). Posteriormente, los fragmentos de cromatina se inmunoprecipitaron con un anticuerpo chip-grado para enriquecer los que contienen el epítopo de interés (D). El ADN co-immunoprecipitated se despojó de la proteína y se purifica (E) antes de crear la biblioteca de fragmentos chip para NGS (Figura 2). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor, haga clic aquí para ver una versión más grande de esta figura.</a> <img alt="Figura 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig2highres.jpg" /> Figura 2. Preparación de la biblioteca-chip Sec, la secuenciación por síntesis, la cartografía y el llamado pico. (A) El electroferograma muestra una buena biblioteca-chip Sec con moldes de ADN de 250 a 450 pb. Estas plantillas implican el inserto de ADN de interés flanqueado por lo universal (58 pb) y el (63 pb) adaptador de indexado. (B) </strong&gt; Millones de grupos, con cada grupo que contiene plantillas idénticas, son de base secuenciados por base en presencia de los cuatro nucleótidos que poseen reversible, fluoróforo distinto y propiedades de terminación idénticos. Fluorescente imágenes se procesan en tiempo real para llamar correspondientes bases, que en última instancia se ensamblan en las lecturas. (C) Sólo lee ese mapa única para el genoma Xenopus se mantienen. Como todos los fragmentos se secuencian a partir del extremo 5 &#39;, el mapeo de Chip lee los resultados en picos específicos de cadena que flanquean la función de la cromatina de interés. De este modo, las personas que llaman pico detectar el enriquecimiento que se origina de inmunoprecipitación y extender la lee a una longitud media fragmento de localizar con precisión las características de la cromatina. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor, haga clic aquí para ver una versión más grande de esta figura.</a> <img alt = &quot;Figura 3&quot; src = &quot;/ files / ftp_upload / 52535 / 52535fig3highres.jpg&quot; /&gt; Figura 3. Un ejemplo de análisis post-secuencia y la visualización de datos por medio del factor cigóticos T-box transcripción Vegt (zVegT). Todos los leídos recuentos mostrados aquí están normalizados a 10 millones asignan de forma única y lee no redundante. (A) Extracto del perfil de todo el genoma de zVegT unión en X. embriones tropicalis gástrula (etapa 11 a 12,5 después de Nieuwkoop y Faber 29). Cada pico, un choque en cadena de lecturas extendida, representa un sitio de unión. Estos picos son llamados por MACS2 con una tasa de falso descubrimiento (FDR) de menos de 1%. Cada gen MESP muestra zVegT muy proximal y aguas arriba de unión, pero sólo ENTHERMICS MEDICAL SYSTEMS y mespb se expresan en esa etapa (datos de RNA-Seq 30). (B) los niveles de ocupación de ADN de zVegT según lo determinado por chip-qPCR en varios loci (incluyendo un no región -bound 0,5 kb aguas arriba de β-actina) confirm el enriquecimiento específico encontrado por chip-Sec. Comparar los resultados de ENTHERMICS MEDICAL SYSTEMS con pico llamado (barra roja) en (A). El nivel de ocupación de ADN se visualiza como un porcentaje de entrada para ambos, el chip con el anticuerpo Vegt (policlonal de conejo de isotipo IgG) y el chip con el control de anticuerpo (IgG de conejo normal). Las barras de error representan la desviación típica de dos réplicas biológicas. (C) MetaGene análisis muestra zVegT unión preferencial (etiquetas binned más de 25 pb) al promotor con respecto a cualquier otra región genómica alrededor y dentro de los cuerpos de genes. (D) Heatmap muestra k-media agrupados niveles (k = 5) de ocupación de ADN (etiquetas binned más de 25 pb) de zVegT y Smad2 / Smad3 (datos-chip Sec 31) relativa a todas las regiones con destino a zVegT en la etapa de gástrula. El mapa de calor es log 2 basado y centrado a 5 etiquetas por pb. (E) De novo motivo de análisis descubre la canónica factor de transcripción T-box motivo de unión en el 38% de zVegT-regiones con destino si la puntuación subyacente motivo se normaliza a una tasa de descubrimiento del 5% en las secuencias de fondo. El mapa de densidad de muestra más alto enriquecimiento para el motivo de la caja en T en el centro de sitios de unión zVegT, mientras que el motivo de Smad2 / Smad3 unión canónica apenas se enriquece. (F) histograma muestra los niveles de ocupación de ADN de zVegT, que se calculan para cada gen diana de todos los picos (+/- 200 pb) entre 5 kb aguas arriba [-]. y 1 kb abajo [+] de los sitios de inicio de transcripción correspondiente (G) Top 300 genes con niveles más altos de ocupación de ADN dentro de -5 kb y 1 kb son enriquecida para los procesos biológicos del desarrollo embrionario temprano. Estos GO términos están en línea con la supuesta función de zVegT. El FDR se basa en una prueba exacta de Fisher de dos colas y corregido para múltiples pruebas. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52535/52535fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Por favor, haga clic aquí para ver una versión más grande de esta figura.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq at JoVE.com

Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

La cuestión de cómo los reguladores y los estados de la cromatina cromatina afecta al genoma in vivo es fundamental para nuestra comprensión de cómo los primeros se toman las decisiones del destino celular en el embrión en desarrollo. Chip-Sec-el método más popular para investigar las características de la cromatina en un nivel se describe aquí mundial para los embriones de Xenopus.

Instantánea de todo el genoma de los Reguladores de la cromatina y los Estados en<em&gt; Xenopus</em&gt; Los embriones por chip-Sec

The recruitment of chromatin regulators and the assignment of chromatin states to specific genomic loci are pivotal to cell fate decisions and tissue and ...

genome-wide-snapshot-chromatin-regulators-states-xenopus-embryos-chip

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

12.1K vistas.  MRC National Institute for Medical Research.  La cuestión de cómo los reguladores y los estados de la cromatina cromatina afecta al genoma in vivo es fundamental para nuestra comprensión de cómo los primeros se toman las decisiones del destino celular en el embrión en desarrollo. Chip-Sec-el método más popular para investigar las características de la cromatina en un nivel se describe aquí mundial para los embriones de Xenopus. 

Video: Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during oogenesis. In order to study roles of such maternal factors in early embryonic development, it is desirable to manipulate their functions from the very beginning of embryonic development. Conventional ways of gene interference are achieved by injection of antisense oligonucleotides (oligos) or mRNA into fertilized eggs, enabling under- or over-expression of specific proteins, respectively. However, these methods normally require more than several hours until protein expression is affected, and, hence, the interference of gene functions is not effective during early embryonic stages. Here, we introduce an experimental system in which expression levels of maternal proteins can be altered before fertilization. Xenopus laevis oocytes obtained from ovaries are defolliculated by incubating with enzymes. Antisense oligos or mRNAs are injected into defolliculated oocytes at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage. These oocytes are in vitro matured to eggs at the metaphase II (MII) stage, followed by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). By this way, up to 10% of ICSI embryos can reach the swimming tadpole stage, thus allowing functional tests of specific gene knockdown or overexpression. This approach can be a useful way to study roles of maternally stored factors in early embryonic development.

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

We describe methods of manipulating Xenopus laevis immature oocytes, in vitro maturation of oocytes to eggs, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection. This protocol allows degradation of some maternal proteins and overexpression of genes of interest at fertilization, and hence is valuable to study roles of specific factors in early embryonic development.

La manipulación y<em&gt; In Vitro</em&gt; La maduración de<em&gt; Xenopus laevis</em&gt; Los ovocitos, seguido de inyección intracitoplasmática de espermatozoides, para estudiar el desarrollo embrionario

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during ...

Investigación

Biología del Desarrollo

Accurate and Phenol Free DNA Sexing of Day 30 Porcine Embryos by PCR

Research into prenatal programming in the pig has shown that the sex of the developing embryo or fetus can influence the developmental outcome. Therefore, the ability to determine an embryo&#39;s sex is necessary in many experiments particularly regarding early development. The present protocol demonstrates an inexpensive, rapid and non-toxic preparation of pig genomic DNA for use with PCR. Day 30 embryos must be humanely collected according to the guidelines established by Institutional Animal Policy and Welfare Committees for the present protocol. The preparation of the whole embryo for this PCR based sexing technique simply involves grinding the frozen embryo to a fine powder using a pre-chilled mortar and pestle. PCR-quality DNA is released from a small amount of embryo powder by applying a hot incubation in an alkaline lysis reagent. Next, the DNA solution is mixed with neutralization buffer and used directly for PCR. Two primer pairs are generated to detect specific sex determining region of the Y- chromosome (SRY) and ZFX region of the X- chromosome with high accuracy and specificity. The same protocol can be applied to other elongated embryos (Day 10 to Day 14) earlier than Day 30. Also, this protocol can be carried with 96-welled plates when screening a large number of embryos, making it feasible for automation and high-throughput sex typing.

This protocol describes an accurate, inexpensive, rapid and non-toxic method to determine the sex of Day 30 porcine embryo using PCR method after grinding an embryo into powder without phenol chloroform extraction and DNA column purification.

Exacta y fenol ADN Determinación del sexo libre del día 30 de los embriones de porcinos por PCR

Research into prenatal programming in the pig has shown that the sex of the developing embryo or fetus can influence the developmental outcome. Therefore, ...

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus embryos are large, develop externally, and can be easily manipulated by microinjection or surgical procedures. In addition, fate maps have been established for early Xenopus embryos. Targeted microinjection into the individual blastomere that will eventually give rise to an organ or tissue of interest can be used to selectively overexpress or knock down gene expression within this restricted region, decreasing secondary effects in the rest of the developing embryo. In this protocol, we describe how to utilize established Xenopus fate maps to target the developing Xenopus kidney (the pronephros), through microinjection into specific blastomere of 4- and 8-cell embryos. Injection of lineage tracers allows verification of the specific targeting of the injection. After embryos have developed to stage 38 - 40, whole-mount immunostaining is used to visualize pronephric development, and the contribution by targeted cells to the pronephros can be assessed. The same technique can be adapted to target other tissue types in addition to the pronephros.

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

Here, we present a protocol to use fate maps and lineage tracers to target injections into individual blastomeres that give rise to the kidney of Xenopus laevis embryos.

Técnica de microinyección a Target a los países en desarrollo<em&gt; Xenopus</em&gt; riñón

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus ...

Generation of Parabiotic Zebrafish Embryos by Surgical Fusion of Developing Blastulae

Surgical parabiosis of two animals of different genetic backgrounds creates a unique scenario to study cell-intrinsic versus cell-extrinsic roles for candidate genes of interest, migratory behaviors of cells, and secreted signals in distinct genetic settings. Because parabiotic animals share a common circulation, any blood or blood-borne factor from one animal will be exchanged with its partner and vice versa. Thus, cells and molecular factors derived from one genetic background can be studied in the context of a second genetic background. Parabiosis of adult mice has been &#160;used extensively to research aging, cancer, diabetes, obesity, and brain development. More recently, parabiosis of zebrafish embryos has been used to study the developmental biology of hematopoiesis. In contrast to mice, the transparent nature of zebrafish embryos permits the direct visualization of cells in the parabiotic context, making it a uniquely powerful method for investigating fundamental cellular and molecular mechanisms. The utility of this technique, however, is limited by a steep learning curve for generating the parabiotic zebrafish embryos. This protocol provides a step-by-step method on how to surgically fuse the blastulae of two zebrafish embryos of different genetic backgrounds to investigate the role of candidate genes of interest. In addition, the parabiotic zebrafish embryos are tolerant to heat shock, making temporal control of gene expression possible. This method does not require a sophisticated set-up and has broad applications for studying cell migration, fate specification, and differentiation in vivo during embryonic development.

This protocol provides step-by-step instruction on how to generate parabiotic zebrafish embryos of different genetic backgrounds. When combined with the unparalleled imaging capabilities of the zebrafish embryo, this method provides a uniquely powerful means to investigate cell-autonomous versus non-cell-autonomous functions for candidate genes of interest.

Generación de Parabiotic embriones de pez cebra por fusión quirúrgica de Desarrollar blástulas

Surgical parabiosis of two animals of different genetic backgrounds creates a unique scenario to study cell-intrinsic versus cell-extrinsic roles for ...

Biosensing Motor Neuron Membrane Potential in Live Zebrafish Embryos

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the cells are located. Specifically, they have been developed to analyze the electrical activity of excitable cells, such as spinal neurons. In such a scenario, it is crucial to preserve the integrity of the spinal cell, but it is also important to preserve the anatomy and physiological shape of the systems involved. Indeed, the comprehension of the manner in which the nervous system-and other complex systems-works must be based on a systemic approach. For this reason, the live zebrafish embryo was chosen as a model system, and the spinal neuron membrane voltage changes were evaluated without interfering with the physiological conditions of the embryos. 
Here, an approach combining the employment of zebrafish embryos with a FRET-based biosensor is described. Zebrafish embryos are characterized by a very simplified nervous system and are particularly suited for imaging applications thanks to their transparency, allowing for the employment of fluorescence-based voltage indicators at the plasma membrane during zebrafish development. The synergy between these two components makes it possible to analyze the electrical activity of the cells in intact living organisms, without perturbing the physiological state. Finally, this non-invasive approach can co-exist with other analyses (e.g., spontaneous movement recordings, as shown here).

Protocols described here allow for the study of the electrical properties of excitable cells in the most non-invasive physiological conditions by employing zebrafish embryos in an in vivo system together with a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based genetically encoded voltage indicator (GEVI) selectively expressed in the cell type of interest.

Potencial de membrana de la neurona motora de Biosensing en los embriones vivos de pez cebra

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the ...

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The efficient in vivo visualization of blood vessels and the reliable quantification of their complexity are key to understanding the biology and disease of the vascular network. Here, we provide a detailed method to visualize blood vessels with a commercially available fluorescent dye, human plasma acetylated low density lipoprotein DiI complex (DiI-AcLDL), and to quantify their complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be labeled by a simple injection of DiI-AcLDL into the beating heart of an embryo, and blood vessels in the entire embryo can be imaged in live or fixed embryos. Combined with gene perturbation by the targeted microinjection of nucleic acids and/or the bath application of pharmacological reagents, the roles of a gene or of a signaling pathway on vascular development can be investigated within one week without resorting to sophisticated genetically engineered animals. Because of the well-defined venous system of Xenopus and its stereotypic angiogenesis, the sprouting of pre-existing vessels, vessel complexity can be quantified efficiently after perturbation experiments. This relatively simple protocol should serve as an easily accessible tool in diverse fields of cardiovascular research.

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

This protocol demonstrates a fluorescence-based method to visualize the vasculature and to quantify its complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be imaged minutes after the injection of a fluorescent dye into the beating heart of an embryo after genetic and/or pharmacological manipulations to study cardiovascular development in vivo.

Visualización y análisis cuantitativo de la angiogénesis embrionaria<em&gt; Xenopus tropicalis</em

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The ...

Induction of Hypoxia in Living Frog and Zebrafish Embryos

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system comprises a chamber featuring a simple setup that is nevertheless robust to induce and maintain a specific oxygen concentration and temperature in any experimental solution of choice. The presented system is very cost-effective but highly functional, it allows induction and sustainment of hypoxia for direct experiments in vivo and for various time periods up to 48 h.
To monitor and study the effects of hypoxia, we have employed two methods - measurement of levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1&#945;) in whole embryos or specific tissues and determination of retinal stem cell proliferation by 5-ethynyl-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation into the DNA. HIF-1&#945; levels can serve as a general hypoxia marker in the whole embryo or tissue of choice, here embryonic retina. EdU incorporation into the proliferating cells of embryonic retina is a specific output of hypoxia induction. Thus, we have shown that hypoxic embryonic retinal progenitors decrease proliferation within 1 h of incubation under 5% oxygen of both frog and zebrafish embryos.
Once mastered, our setup can be employed for use with small aquatic model organisms, for direct in vivo experiments, any given time period and under normal, hypoxic or hyperoxic oxygen concentration or under any other given gas mixture.

We introduce a novel hypoxic chamber system for use with aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system is simple, robust, cost-effective and allows the induction and sustainment of hypoxia in vivo and for up to 48 h. We present 2 reproducible methods to monitor the effectiveness of hypoxia.

Inducción de la hipoxia en los sapos vivos y los embriones de pez cebra

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and ...

CARIP-Seq and ChIP-Seq: Methods to Identify Chromatin-Associated RNAs and Protein-DNA Interactions in Embryonic Stem Cells

Embryonic stem (ES) cell self-renewal&#160;and differentiation is governed by extrinsic signals and intrinsic networks of transcription factors, epigenetic regulators, and post-translation modifications of histones that combinatorially influence the gene expression state of nearby genes. RNA has also been shown to interact with various proteins to regulate chromatin dynamics&#160;and gene expression. Chromatin-associated RNA immunoprecipitation (CARIP) followed by next-generation sequencing (CARIP-Seq) is a novel method to survey RNAs associated with chromatin proteins, while chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by next-generation sequencing (ChIP-Seq) is a powerful genomics technique to map the location of post-translational modification of histones, transcription factors, and epigenetic modifiers on a global-scale in ES cells. Here, we describe methods to perform CARIP-Seq and ChIP-Seq, including library construction for next-generation sequencing, to generate global chromatin-associated RNA and epigenomic maps in ES cells.

Here, we describe methods to perform ChIP-Seq and CARIP-Seq, including library preparation for next-generation sequencing, to generate global epigenomic and chromatin-associated RNA maps in ES cells.

CARIP-Seq y ChIP-Seq: métodos para identificar cromatina asociada RNAs y las interacciones DNA proteína en las células madre embrionarias

Embryonic stem (ES) cell self-renewal&#160;and differentiation is governed by extrinsic signals and intrinsic networks of transcription factors, ...

Visualizing the Node and Notochordal Plate In Gastrulating Mouse Embryos Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Whole Mount Immunofluorescence

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is the formation of the transient organizers, the node and notochordal plate, from cells that have passed through the primitive streak. The proper formation of these signaling centers is essential for the development of the body plan and techniques to visualize them are of high interest to mouse developmental biologists. The node and notochordal plate lie on the ventral surface of gastrulating mouse embryos around embryonic day (E) 7.5 of development. The node is a cup-shaped structure whose cells possess a single slender cilium each. The proper subcellular localization and rotation of the cilia in the node pit determines left-right asymmetry. The notochordal plate cells also possess single cilia albeit shorter than those of the node cells. The notochordal plate forms the notochord which acts as an important signaling organizer for somitogenesis and neural patterning. Because the cells of the node and notochordal plate are transiently present on the surface and possess cilia, they can be visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Among other techniques used to visualize these structures at the cellular level is whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF) using the antibodies against the proteins that are highly expressed in the node and notochordal plate. In this report, we describe our optimized protocols to perform SEM and WMIF of the node and notochordal plate in developing mouse embryos to help in the assessment of tissue shape and cellular organization in wild-type and gastrulation mutant embryos.

The node and notochordal plate are transient signaling organizers in developing mouse embryos that can be visualized using several techniques. Here, we describe in detail how to perform two of the techniques to study their structure and morphogenesis: 1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and 2) whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF).

Visualización de la placa notocordal en embriones de ratón Gastrulating con microscopía electrónica e inmunofluorescencia de Monte todo y nodo

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is ...

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the development of neuronal connectivity. During establishment of the retino-tectal projection, optic axons extend from the eye and navigate through distinct regions of the brain to reach their target tissue, the optic tectum. Once optic axons enter the tectum, they elaborate terminal arbors that function to increase the number of synaptic connections they can make with target interneurons in the tectum. Here, we describe a method to express DNA encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP), and gain- and loss-of-function gene constructs, in optic neurons (retinal ganglion cells) in Xenopus embryos. We explain how to microinject a combined DNA/lipofection reagent into eyebuds of one day old embryos such that exogenous genes are expressed in single or small numbers of optic neurons. By tagging genes with GFP or co-injecting with a GFP plasmid, terminal axonal arbors of individual optic neurons with altered molecular signaling can be imaged directly in brains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles several days later, and their morphology can be quantified. This protocol allows for determination of cell-autonomous molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of optic axon arborization in vivo.

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

This protocol aims to demonstrate how to microinject a DNA/DOTAP mixture into eyebuds of one day old Xenopus laevis embryos, and how to image and reconstruct individual green fluorescent protein (GFP) expressing optic axonal arbors in tectal midbrains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles.

Microinyección de ADN en los oculares en embriones de Xenopus laevis e imágenes de gFP que expresan los árboles axonales ópticos en los renacuajos de Xenopus vivos

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the ...