This research was made possible through the Jacobs Foundation Early Career Fellowship to K. Jasinska (Fellowship Number: 2015 118455). The authors also wish to acknowledge Axel Blahoua, Fabrice Tanoh, Ariane Amon, Brice Kanga, and Yvette Foto for their assistance in data collection and field support. Special thanks to the families and children of Moap&#233;, Anangui&#233;, Affery, and Becouefin for their participation in this research program and the villages&#39; warm hospitality.

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of Delaware.
1. Mobile Laboratory Transport and Setup
<ol>
	<li>Traveling with the fNIRS equipment
	<ol>
		<li>Transport fNIRS equipment. 
		NOTE: fNIRS equipment can be transported as checked-luggage on a major international airline, but it is imperative to confirm with the given airline. Equipment restrictions may vary by origin or destination country. Alternatively...

<ol>
	<li>Dawson, G., Ashman, S. B., Carver, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+early+experience+in+shaping+behavioral+and+brain+development+and+its+implications+for+social+policy.">The role of early experience in shaping behavioral and brain development and its implications for social policy.</a> Dev Psychopathol. 12 (4), 695-712 (2000).</li><li>Blair, C., Raver, C. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poverty,+Stress,+and+Brain+Development:+New+Directions+for+Prevention+and+Intervention.">Poverty, Stress, and Brain Development: New Directions for Prevention and Intervention.</a> Acad Pediatr. 16 (3 Suppl), S30-S36 (2016).</li><li>Jasi&#324;ska, K. K., Petitto, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+age+of+bilingual+exposure+can+change+the+neural+systems+for+language+in+the+developing+brain:+A+functional+near+infrared+spectroscopy+investigation+of+syntactic+processing+in+monolingual+and+bilingual+children.">How age of bilingual exposure can change the neural systems for language in the developing brain: A functional near infrared spectroscopy investigation of syntactic processing in monolingual and bilingual children.</a> Dev Cogn Neurosci. 6c, 87-101 (2013).</li><li>Statistics, U. I. f. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> C&#244;te d'Ivoire. , (2017).</li><li>University, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> 2013/14 Survey Research on Child Labor in West African Cocoa Growing Areas. , (2015).</li><li>Cui, X., Bray, S., Bryant, D. M., Glover, G. H., Reiss, A. 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+neural+systems+for+reading+in+the+monolingual+and+bilingual+brain:+new+insights+from+functional+near+infrared+spectroscopy+neuroimaging.">Development of neural systems for reading in the monolingual and bilingual brain: new insights from functional near infrared spectroscopy neuroimaging.</a> Dev Neuropsychol. 39 (6), 421-439 (2014).</li><li>Petitto, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+"Perceptual+Wedge+Hypothesis"+as+the+basis+for+bilingual+babies'+phonetic+processing+advantage:+new+insights+from+fNIRS+brain+imaging.">The "Perceptual Wedge Hypothesis" as the basis for bilingual babies' phonetic processing advantage: new insights from fNIRS brain imaging.</a> Brain Lang. 121 (2), 130-143 (2012).</li><li>Jasper, H. 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E., Jung, J., Jang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NIRS-SPM:+statistical+parametric+mapping+for+near-infrared+spectroscopy.">NIRS-SPM: statistical parametric mapping for near-infrared spectroscopy.</a> Neuroimage. 44 (2), 428-447 (2009).</li><li>Huppert, T. J. T. J., Diamond, S. G. S. G., Franceschini, M. A. M. A., Boas, D. A. D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HomER:+a+review+of+time-series+analysis+methods+for+near-infrared+spectroscopy+of+the+brain.">HomER: a review of time-series analysis methods for near-infrared spectroscopy of the brain.</a> Appl Opt. 48 (10), D280-D298 (2009).</li><li>Huppert, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Commentary+on+the+statistical+properties+of+noise+and+its+implication+on+general+linear+models+in+functional+near-infrared+spectroscopy.">Commentary on the statistical properties of noise and its implication on general linear models in functional near-infrared spectroscopy.</a> Neurophotonics. 3 (1), 010401 (2016).</li><li>Rosso, A. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuroimaging+of+an+attention+demanding+dual-task+during+dynamic+postural+control.">Neuroimaging of an attention demanding dual-task during dynamic postural control.</a> Gait Posture. 57, 193-198 (2017).</li><li>Jang, K. E. K. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wavelet+minimum+description+length+detrending+for+near-infrared+spectroscopy.">Wavelet minimum description length detrending for near-infrared spectroscopy.</a> Journal of Biomedical Optics. 14 (3), 034004-034004 (2009).</li><li>Worsley, K. J., Friston, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+fMRI+time-series+revisited--again.">Analysis of fMRI time-series revisited--again.</a> Neuroimage. 2 (3), 173-181 (1995).</li><li>Friston, K. 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K., Okamoto, M., Dan, H., Jurcak, V., Dan, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+registration+of+multichannel+multi-subject+fNIRS+data+to+MNI+space+without+MRI.">Spatial registration of multichannel multi-subject fNIRS data to MNI space without MRI.</a> Neuroimage. 27 (4), 842-851 (2005).</li><li>Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., Ranney, M. 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This paper presented a field neuroimaging protocol suitable for low-resource contexts in remote locations. The key advance of this field neuroimaging protocol is the first-time ability to study brain function and its development in understudied (or never-before studied) contexts. Critical steps in this protocol include traveling with and setting up a mobile laboratory suitable for quality data collection in tropical climates without electricity or available facilities. This protocol provides a general guide to forming st...

Portable fNIRS imaging provides the ability to study brain function and development outside the laboratory, in previously inaccessible settings or with understudied populations. Much of the knowledge in the domain of cognitive neuroscience comes from imaging studies conducted in university or hospital laboratory settings, in predominantly Western countries. By design, this contributes to a seldom-spoken-of problem in research: much of what is known about the brain is based on studies with participants for whom laboratory settings in (mostly) Western countries are accessible. That is, most neuroimaging research involves participants who live in reasonable proximity to a neuroimaging laboratory and have both the time and resources necessary to participate in a study. As a discipline, cognitive neuroscience aims to understand the brain and the factors that shape its development&#8212;including the powerful effects of a child&#39;s environment and their early-life experiences1,2,3. Methods that advance the field&#39;s capacity to study development in a fuller range of human experience can dramatically advance the understanding of the complex relation between brain development and the life experiences that shape it.
This paper presents a protocol for field neuroimaging, which was developed for use in rural sub-Saharan Africa, specifically southern C&#244;te d&#39;Ivoire. The aim of this field neuroimaging research program was to understand children&#39;s reading development in an environment with a high-risk of illiteracy. C&#244;te d&#39;Ivoire&#39;s youth (15-24 years) literacy rate is 53%, despite 93% primary school enrollment rates4. C&#244;te d&#39;Ivoire is the world&#39;s primary source of cocoa, and there are an estimated 1.3 million child laborers in the cocoa agricultural sector5. Yet, little is known about the impact of child labor on brain development and learning, specifically learning to read. Applying the latest tools of cognitive neuroscience, i.e., portable neuroimaging methods,&#160;can yield valuable insights into children&#8217;s learning outcomes.&#160;For example, field neuroimaging with fNIRS can allow the identification of neurodevelopmental periods during which targeted educational programs or interventions may have maximal impacts on children&#39;s learning outcomes.
fNIRS neuroimaging is well-suited for field research. Similar to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), fNIRS measures the brain&#39;s hemodynamic response6. However, fNIRS uses a series of light emitting optodes and light detectors rather than generating electromagnetic fields. There are no restrictions on metal in or near the testing area, and no electric shielding is necessary, as in the case for electroencephalography (EEG). A key advantage of fNIRS is its portability (i.e., some systems may fit in a suitcase) and ease of use. fNIRS is also easy to use with children; the child is comfortably seated in a chair during the experiment and the fNIRS system tolerates movement well compared to fMRI. Compared with fMRI, fNIRS also provides separate measures of deoxygenated (HbR) and oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) during recording, compared to fMRI which yields a combined blood oxygen level density (BOLD) measure. fNIRS has superior temporal resolution to fMRI: sampling rates can vary between ~ 7-15 Hz. fNIRS has good spatial resolution: the fNIRS&#39; depth of recording in the human cortex is less than fMRI, measuring about 3 to 4 cm in depth, which is well-suited for studying cortical functions, especially with infants and children who have thinner skulls than adults3,7,8,9,10.
This field neuroimaging protocol outlines considerations for traveling with and setting up a portable neuroimaging laboratory in low-resource contexts. The protocol also highlights the essential nature of meaningful, long-term collaborations with local science partners and ways by which this approach serves to build local science capacity. The neuroimaging protocol for collecting and analyzing fNIRS brain data from a battery of language, reading, and cognitive tasks, is demonstrated including recommendations for creating culturally appropriate informed consent procedures for imaging research. While this protocol is designed for cognitive development research with primary school aged children in rural C&#244;te d&#39;Ivoire, the protocol is highly relevant for any field neuroimaging study in challenging, low-resource environments, and can be adapted for novel contexts.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>LIGHTNIRS Main Unit Pack 120V</td>
			<td>Shimadzu</td>
			<td>292-34000-42</td>
			<td>Component of the fNIRS system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HOLDER ASSY, ALL- CAP</td>
			<td>Shimadzu</td>
			<td>594-07618-01</td>
			<td>Component of the fNIRS system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LIGHTNIRS connection cable</td>
			<td>Shimadzu</td>
			<td>567-10976-11</td>
			<td>fNIRS system component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiber set for LIGHTNIRS, 1m (8 sets)</td>
			<td>Shimadzu</td>
			<td>567-11350-01</td>
			<td>fNIRS system component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dell Latitude Laptop</td>
			<td>Shimadzu (from Dell)</td>
			<td>220-97322-00</td>
			<td>Master computer to run fNIRS applications</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PATRIOT SEU (System Electronics Unit)</td>
			<td>POLHEMUS</td>
			<td>1A0453-001</td>
			<td>PATRIOT System component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power Supply</td>
			<td>POLHEMUS</td>
			<td>2C0809</td>
			<td>PATRIOT System component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power Supply cord</td>
			<td>POLHEMUS</td>
			<td>17500B-BLK</td>
			<td>PATRIOT System component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RS-232 null modem cable</td>
			<td>POLHEMUS</td>
			<td>1C0288</td>
			<td>PATRIOT System component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>USB cable</td>
			<td>POLHEMUS</td>
			<td>1C0289</td>
			<td>PATRIOT System component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RX2 Sensor 10&#39; cable</td>
			<td>POLHEMUS</td>
			<td>4A0492-20</td>
			<td>PATRIOT System component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TX2 Source 10&#39; cable</td>
			<td>POLHEMUS</td>
			<td>4A0506-20</td>
			<td>PATRIOT System component</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

neuroimaging field methods using functional near infrared spectroscopy (nirs) neuroimaging to study global child development: rural sub-saharan africa

Portable neuroimaging approaches provide new advances to the study of brain function and brain development with previously inaccessible populations and in remote locations. This paper shows the development of field functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) imaging to the study of child language, reading, and cognitive development in a rural village setting of C&#244;te d&#39;Ivoire. Innovation in methods and the development of culturally appropriate neuroimaging protocols allow&#160;a first-time look into the brain&#39;s development and children&#39;s learning outcomes in understudied environments. This paper demonstrates protocols for transporting and setting up a mobile laboratory, discusses considerations for field versus laboratory neuroimaging, and presents a guide for developing neuroimaging consent procedures and building meaningful long-term collaborations with local government and science partners. Portable neuroimaging methods can be used to study complex child development contexts, including the impact of significant poverty and adversity on brain development. The protocol presented here has been developed for use in C&#244;te d&#39;Ivoire, the world&#39;s primary source of cocoa, and where reports of child labor in the cocoa sector are common. Yet, little is known about the impact of child labor on brain development and learning. Field neuroimaging methods have the potential to yield new insights into such urgent issues, and the development of children globally.

Probe position data obtained by the 3D digitizer (Figure 2) can be visualized on a standard brain template. Register fNIRS channels to MNI space using NIRS-SPM&#39;s stand-alone registration function25. The spatial registration function generates MNI coordinates, anatomical labels, and Brodmann areas maximally represented by each channel.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" s...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Neuroimaging Field Methods Using Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy NIRS Neuroimaging to Study Global Child Development: Rural Sub-Saharan Africa at JoVE.c

Neuroimaging Field Methods Using Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy NIRS Neuroimaging to Study Global Child Development: Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

Portable neuroimaging approaches (functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy) provide advances to the study of the brain in previously inaccessible regions; here, rural C&#244;te d&#39;Ivoire. Innovation in methods and development of culturally-appropriate neuroimaging protocols permits novel study of the brain&#39;s development and children&#39;s learning outcomes in environments with significant poverty and adversity.

Neuroimaging Field Methods Using Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) Neuroimaging to Study Global Child Development: Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

Portable neuroimaging approaches provide new advances to the study of brain function and brain development with previously inaccessible populations and in ...

The overall goal of this Field Neuro Imaging Protocol, is to study children's brain development, and cognitive and learning outcomes, using portable functional near infrared spectroscopy, known as FNIRS, in remote understudied, low resource settings such as impoverished rural communities, in Sub-Saharan Africa. This method can help us answer key questions about brain development in high risk environments. For example, how the brain's network for reading develops in communities with high risk of illiteracy.This method also addresses important theoretical issues in global child development, regarding how both biological development and diverse, and often negative experiences, impact the brain. And can reveal new information about developmental, sensitive periods. To begin, invest in the formation of collaborations, and provide opportunities, within the research framework, to local researchers.Establish partnerships with local, scientific institutions for the purpose of inclusivity, as recognition from peers at the local level is important in communicating research findings in the region. Prepare for rainy climate conditions, in the field, as temperature and humidity conditions can vary significantly from laboratory settings, which may effect equipment function and longevity, and participant comfort. Demonstrating the procedure will be Lais Freitas, a visiting scholar in my laboratory, from the Federal University of San Pallo, and Violet Kozloff, our laboratory manager.Begin by undergoing a consent procedure, in a local or preferred language of the participant, that is culturally appropriate, and ensures that participants, their families, and communities are informed about research and their decision to participate in the study. Then, escort the participants to the testing room, and have them sit on a chair. Explain to the participant that a head measurement will be taken.Using a standard tape measure, measure the distances between the nasion and inion around the head, the nasion and inion over the top of the head, through the midline central, or CC, and the distance between the left and right ear tragus, over the top of the head, through CC.Next, place the fNIRS optode holder cap onto the participants head, aligning the cap to the International 10-20 system, for scalp locations. Secure the cap with the strap. Once the cap is positioned, instruct the participant to sit still, while a 3D digitizer measurement of the key 10-20 system scalp positions, and each optode place holder is taken.Then, arrange the 3D digitizer equipment, by placing one sensor on the participant's head, at CC, and affixed securely, and placing the second sensor on the table directly behind the participant's head. Move 3D digitizer stylist to each probe location, and across the key 10-20 system positions. After the 3D digitizer data are collected, direct the participant to be seated comfortably, in front of the stimulus presentation computer.Using the fNIRS built in software, select the probe arrangement that corresponds to the experiment's design. Ensure it is placed to maximally overlay left hemisphere language areas, and their right hemisphere homologues, as well as the frontal lobe. Ensure that both emitter and detector probes are numbered according to the probe arrangement map.Using the optode map and the fNIRS inbuilt software as a guide, place each optode in it's respective opening. Move any hair to ensure contact between the tip of the optode and scalp. Finally, after all of the optodes are in position, check for signal quality, using the fNIRS system built in software.Adjust individual probes, as necessary, until sufficient signal quality is achieved. Begin by placing noise-canceling headphones on the participant's head, being careful not to interfere with fNIRS probe placement. Ensure that the headphones deliver auditory speech stimuli, if applicable to the participant, as well as block any ambient noise.Instruct the participant to fixate on the cross, in the middle of the screen. Ask them to remain still during the experiment, while the experimental tasks are displayed. Dim the lights, and begin recording the participant on the built in video camera.Begin fNIRS data recording, on the fNIRS command computer, and commence tasks on the stimulus presentation computer. Monitor participant performance, throughout all tasks, and provide breaks between tasks and runs. Ensure that triggering, from the experimental stimuli presentation computer is received by the fNIRS command computer.Finally, at the end of all tasks, stop collecting video and fNIRS data. After the experiment is complete, remove each optode from the optode holder cap. Without disrupting the position of the optode holder cap on the participant's head, direct the participant to sit in a position, to obtain a second 3D digitizer measurement.Repeat the 3D digitizer measurement, to ensure that any disruptions to the scalp probe positions during the experiment can be detected, by comparing the two position files. Finally, after the repeat measurement is complete, remove the optode holder cap from the participant's head. The 3D position data and experimental design data, were combined with fNIRS time series data, for analysis in order to map experiment related, significant neural activation patterns on a standard brain template.This subject showed greater activation in the left hemisphere superior temporal gyrus, during rhyming trials compared with rest. Further, greater activation for nonrhyming verses rhyming trials, in the left hemisphere is shown. Such as Subject 1 showed greater activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus, and Subject 2 showed greater activation in the left superior temporal gyrus.Following this procedure, other methods like assessments of cognitive and verbal skills can be performed in order to answer additional questions about the association between brain activity and children's abilities. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of important considerations in field neuroimaging, such as local partnerships with communities and researchers, as well as a technical understanding of how to position the fNIRS cap, place the optodes, and collect data with this system. Don't forget that working in remote locations can be dangerous, with risks of illness, crime, and political instability.And precautions such as medication, vaccinations, and monitoring travel advisories should always be taken while performing this procedure.

neuroimaging-field-methods-using-functional-near-infrared

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

14.5K vistas.  University of Delaware. The overall goal of this Field Neuro Imaging Protocol, is to study children's brain development, and cognitive and learning outcomes, using portable functional near infrared spectroscopy, known as FNIRS, in remote understudied, low resource settings such as impoverished rural communities, in Sub-Saharan Africa. This method can help us answer key questions about brain development in high risk environments. For example, how the brain's network for reading develops in communities with high risk ...

Video: Neuroimaging Field Methods Using Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy NIRS Neuroimaging to Study Global Child Development: Rural Sub-Saharan Africa