Ce matériel est basé sur le travail soutenu par un fonds de démarrage à l&#39;Université du Minnesota, Twin Cities. Certaines parties de ce travail ont été effectuées dans l&#39;installation de caractérisation, Université du Minnesota, un membre de la NSF financé par Materials Research Facilities (Network www.mrfn.org) via le programme MRSEC. Une partie de ce travail a également été réalisé dans le Nano Centre Minnesota qui reçoit un soutien partiel de la NSF à travers le programme NNCI.

Attention: Plusieurs des produits chimiques utilisés dans ces synthèses sont toxiques, hautement inflammable, et peut provoquer des irritations et des dommages aux organes graves lors d&#39;un contact ou d&#39;inhalation. S&#39;il vous plaît porter un équipement de protection individuelle (EPI) lors de la manipulation. 1. Préparation de la première couche d&#39;or (Au) nanopilier Arrays (figure 2a-c et la figure 2e-g) <ol><li> Préparation du cuivre (Cu) couches de semences pour Au galvanoplastie (Figure 2a, b et la figure 2e, f) <ol><li> Utilisez un 4 &quot;haute résistivité du silicium (Si) wafer. (Résistivité: 560-840 Ω · cm) comme substrat La plaquette de Si est de type N dopé et poli d&#39;un côté (Figure 2a, e). </li><li> Couper la tranche de Si en 2 cm x 2,5 cm pièces pour une utilisation ultérieure. </li><li> Déposer une couche de 5 nm de chrome (Cr) sur l&#39;échantillon de Si en utilisant un faisceau d&#39;électrons (e-beam) procédé d&#39;évaporation en tant que couche d&#39;adhérence entre le Si et Cu. </li><li> Déposer une couche de Cu 10 nm au-dessus de la couche de Cr existante à l&#39;aide d&#39;unProcessus d&#39;évaporation par faisceau d&#39; électrons comme la couche d&#39;ensemencement pour Au galvanoplastie (Figure 2b, f). </li></ol></li><li> Electroplating la matrice nanopilier Au (figure 2c, g) <ol><li> Patterning la matrice de nanopilier <ol><li> Spin couche photosensible sur l&#39;échantillon préparé dans la section 1.1 à 2000 rpm pendant 60 s. </li><li> Cuire l&#39;échantillon sur une plaque chaude à 115 ° C pendant 60 s. </li><li> Exposer la résine photosensible sous lumière ultraviolette (UV) -light (~ puissance de 15 mW / cm2) avec un photomasque Cr qui contient des milliers de modes de nanopilier pendant 22 s. </li><li> Développer avec un développeur pour 90 s avec agitation. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec désionisée (DI) de l&#39;eau et séchez l&#39;échantillon avec un pistolet à air. </li></ol></li><li> Electroplating le tableau de nanopilier Au <ol><li> Enlever la partie supérieure de la résine photosensible sur l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;acétone afin d&#39;exposer la couche d&#39;ensemencement de Cu pour le raccordement de l&#39;électrode. </li><li> Connectez le samPLE (couche d&#39;ensemencement de Cu) à la borne négative d&#39;un compteur source à l&#39;aide d&#39;une pince et d&#39;un fil. Dans ce cas, l&#39;échantillon est de l&#39;anode pendant le processus de dépôt électrolytique. </li><li> Connecter un morceau de platine (Pt) revêtu Si (même taille que l&#39;échantillon) à la borne positive du compteur de la source. Pt est la cathode pendant le processus de dépôt électrolytique. </li><li> Immerger la cathode à la fois Pt et Cu anode dans la solution de dépôt électrolytique Au. Maintenir les deux électrodes se faisant face avec une distance d&#39;environ 1 cm. </li><li> Allumez le compteur source et de fournir une tension constante de 1,12 V. Electroplate Au sur l&#39;échantillon pendant 8 min (vitesse de dépôt: ~ 100 nm / min). </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI, suivie par l&#39;acétone pour éliminer la résine photosensible. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI à nouveau et séchez avec un pistolet à air. </li><li> Inspectez le electroplated Au nanopilier réseau sous un microscope. </li><li> Mesurer l&#39;épaisseur de l&#39;UA nanopiliers avec un profilomètre (L&#39;épaisseur de laAu nanopiliers est ~ 800 nm). REMARQUE: courant constant set-up peut également être utilisé pour la galvanoplastie Au nanopiliers. Dans les deux tension constante et courant constant set-up, la tension actuelle et idéal utilisé pour Au galvanoplastie peut être obtenue par essais et erreurs. </li></ol></li></ol></li></ol> 2. Création de nano-écarts entre Au nanopiliers (figure 2d, h) <ol><li> Enlèvement des couches de Cu et de Cr <ol><li> Immerger l&#39;échantillon en Cu jusqu&#39;à ce que la gravure couleur Cu disparaît. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI et séchez avec un pistolet à air. </li><li> Inspecter les Au nanopiliers sous un microscope. </li><li> Immerger l&#39;échantillon dans Cr masque de gravure pour 10 s. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI et séchez avec un pistolet à air. </li><li> Inspecter les Au nanopiliers sous un microscope. </li></ol></li><li> Fabrication de l&#39; oxyde d&#39;aluminium à l&#39; échelle nanométrique (Al 2 O 3) les lacunes <ol><li> Chauffer le cham système ALDber à 200 ° C. </li><li> Placer l&#39;échantillon dans le centre de la chambre. </li><li> Pomper la chambre à vide et définir le nombre de cycles à 100 (taux de dépôt: ~ 1 Å / cycle). </li><li> Séquentiellement et alternativement des impulsions triméthylaluminium (TMA) de gaz avec une période de temps de 0,015 s et de l&#39; eau (H 2 O) en phase vapeur avec une période de temps de 0,015 s dans la chambre pour déposer uniformément Al 2 O 3 couches sur l&#39;échantillon. L&#39;écart de temps entre chaque impulsion est de 5 s. La pression de la chambre au cours de la TMA impulsion est de 10 torr et la pression pendant l&#39; impulsion H 2 O 2 en phase vapeur est Torr. </li><li> Purger et aspirer la chambre entre chaque cycle du dépôt. Dépôt de Al 2 O 3 pour 100 cycles et sortir l&#39;échantillon de la chambre. </li><li> Mesurer l&#39;épaisseur de l&#39;ALD Al 2 O 3 à l&#39; aide d&#39; un ellipsomètre. </li></ol></li></ol> 3. Préparation de la deuxième couche de film mince d&#39;une fille (figure 2i-l et la figure 2m-p) <ol><li> Préparation de Cu couches de semences pour Au galvanoplastie (Figure 2i, m) <ol><li> Placer l&#39;échantillon dans le centre d&#39;un porte-échantillon de l&#39;évaporateur E-beam. </li><li> Désactiver la rotation de l&#39;échantillon dans l&#39;évaporateur à faisceau d&#39;électrons. </li><li> Déposer une couche de Cr 5 nm sur l&#39;échantillon pour agir comme une couche d&#39;adhérence entre Al 2 O 3 et de Cu. Utilisez un procédé d&#39;évaporation par faisceau d&#39;électrons sans rotation de l&#39;échantillon. </li><li> Dépôt de 10 nm Cu sur le dessus de la couche de Cr existant en utilisant un procédé d&#39;évaporation par faisceau d&#39;électrons sans rotation de l&#39;échantillon en tant que couche de semences pour Au galvanoplastie. </li></ol></li><li> Electroplating le film mince Au (Figure 2j, n) <ol><li> Connecter l&#39;échantillon (couche de germe de Cu) à la borne négative de l&#39;appareil source à l&#39;aide d&#39;une pince et d&#39;un fil. Dans ce cas, l&#39;échantillon est de l&#39;anode pendant le processus de dépôt électrolytique. </li><li> Connecter la cathode Pt à la borne positive du compteur de la source. </li><li> Immerger la fois la cathode Pt et Cu Anode dans la solution de dépôt électrolytique Au. Maintenir les deux électrodes se faisant face avec une distance d&#39;environ 1 cm. </li><li> Allumez le compteur source et mettre en place une tension constante de 1,35 V et galvanoplastie Au sur l&#39;échantillon pendant 16 min. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI et séchez avec un pistolet à air. </li><li> Inspectez le Au electroplated et précédemment electroplated Au nanopilier tableau sous un microscope. </li><li> Mesurer l&#39;épaisseur de l&#39;UA nanopiliers avec un profilomètre (épaisseur de l&#39;UA nanopiliers est ~ 400 nm). NOTE: Comme pour la galvanoplastie Au dans la section 1.2.2, courant constant set-up peut également être utilisé pour la galvanoplastie Au film mince. Dans les deux tension constante et courant constant set-up, la tension actuelle et idéal utilisé pour Au galvanoplastie peut être obtenue par essais et erreurs. </li></ol></li><li> Enlèvement de Cr et Cu couches (Figure 2k, o) <ol><li> Immerger l&#39;échantillon dans Cu décapant pendant 10 s. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec eau DI und brushing avec un pistolet à air. </li><li> Inspecter les Au nanopiliers sous un microscope. </li><li> Immerger l&#39;échantillon dans Cr masque de gravure pour 10 s. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI et séchez avec un pistolet à air. </li><li> Inspecter les Au nanopiliers sous un microscope. REMARQUE: Vous pouvez également plonger à nouveau l&#39;échantillon en solution d&#39;électrodéposition Au déposer une couche supplémentaire de Au-dessus de la deuxième couche de Au electroplated après le retrait de Cr et Cu (étape 3.3). Cette Au couche supplémentaire augmente l&#39;épaisseur totale de la deuxième couche de Au et assure un bon contact entre la couche d&#39; Au et la couche d&#39; Al 2 O 3 (Figure 2i, p). </li></ol></li></ol> 4. Définition de C-forme SRR (Figure 2q-s et la figure 2u-w) <ol><li> Patterning la SRR en forme de C (Figure 2q, u) <ol><li> Spin enduire une résine photosensible sur l&#39;échantillon à 2000 rpm pendant 60 s. </li><li> Cuire l&#39;échantillon sur la plaque chaude de 115 ° C pendant 60 s. </li><li&gt; Exposer résine photosensible sous lumière UV (puissance de ~ 15 mW / cm 2) avec un photomasque Cr pendant 22 s. </li><li> Développer avec un développeur pour 90 s avec agitation. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI et séchez l&#39;échantillon avec un pistolet à air. </li></ol></li><li> Définition C-forme en utilisant l&#39; usine d&#39;ions (Figure 2r, v et Figure 2s, w) <ol><li> Fixer l&#39;échantillon sur un porte-échantillon de l&#39;usine d&#39;ions en utilisant du ruban conducteur double face Cu. </li><li> Refroidir la chambre de broyage d&#39;ions à 6 ° C. </li><li> Ion broyeur de l&#39;échantillon avec une tension de faisceau de 300 V et un courant de faisceau de 125 mA pendant environ 30 min. </li><li> Sortez l&#39;échantillon et inspecter les Au nanopiliers en dehors de la C-forme. </li><li> Répétez l&#39;étape 4.2.3 et 4.2.4 si Au reste visible à l&#39;extérieur de la C-forme. </li><li> Soniquer l&#39;échantillon dans de l&#39;acétone pour enlever la résine photosensible. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI et séchez avec un pistolet à air. </li><li> Inspecter l&#39;échantillon sous un microscope. </li><li> Répétez l&#39;étape 4.2.6 et 4.2.7 si résine photosensible ne soit pas complètement éliminé. REMARQUE: Vous pouvez également appliquer l&#39;oxygène resist adoucissant étapes à la résine photosensible avant de retirer la résine photosensible. Cependant, un bain de sonication est la méthode la plus efficace pour éliminer photoresist le cas échéant. </li></ol></li></ol> 5. Suppression de Al 2 O 3 pour Air Nano-trous (Figure 2t, x) <ol><li> Immerger l&#39;échantillon dans 5% de fluorure d&#39;hydrogène (HF) solution pendant 5 min pour éliminer Al 2 O 3. </li><li> Rincer l&#39;échantillon avec de l&#39;eau DI et séchez avec un pistolet à air. </li></ol>

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Les auteurs n&#39;ont rien à dévoiler.

Cette technique de fabrication présente des avantages importants pour la création de structures à l&#39;échelle nanométrique par rapport aux méthodes existantes telles que la lithographie par faisceau d&#39;électrons et de l&#39;auto-assemblage. Tout d&#39;abord, les structures à l&#39;échelle nanométrique peuvent être réalisées sur une grande surface (toute une plaquette) en utilisant un photomasque qui présente des tableaux de nanopilier, ce qui est pas pratique avec un procédé de lithographie par fais...

Térahertz (THz) métamatériaux (SMM) ont été développées pour des capteurs et des dispositifs biomédicaux 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 agile en fréquence. Afin d&#39;améliorer la sensibilité et la sélectivité en fréquence des THz capteurs MM, une base nanopilier-anneau fendu résonateur (SRR) a été conçu en utilisant un courant de déplacement généré à l&#39;intérieur de l&#39;or (Au) matrices de nanopilier pour exciter des résonances THz avec des facteurs ultra-haute qualité ( Q-facteurs) (~ 450) (figure 1) 12. Même si RRF basée nanopilier-montrent Q élevé des facteurs et des capacités de détection prometteuses, la fabrication de tels nanostructures avec des rapports d&#39;aspect élevés (plus de 40) et les lacunes à l&#39; échelle nanométrique (sub-10 nm) sur une grande surface reste difficile 13. La technique la plus couramment utilisée pour fabriquer des structures à l&#39; échelle nanométrique est lithographie électronique (EBL) 14, 15, 16, 17. Cependant, la résolution de EBL est encore limitée en raison de la taille du point de faisceau, la diffusion des électrons, les propriétés de la résine, et le processus de développement 18, 19. En outre, il est peu pratique pour fabriquer des nanostructures utilisant EBL sur une grande surface en raison d&#39;un temps de processus lent et coûte un grand processus 20. Une autre stratégie pour obtenir des nanostructures consiste à utiliser une technique d&#39; auto-assemblage 21, 22. Par nanocubes métalliques auto-assemblés (CN) dans une solution et utilizing l&#39;interaction électrostatique et l&#39;association des ligands polymères entre NCS, un bien organisé unidimensionnel tableau NC avec des lacunes à l&#39; échelle nanométrique peut être atteint 23. La taille des nano-fente dépend des ligands de polymère entre les commandes numériques et peut être contrôlée en appliquant différents matériaux polymères ayant des poids moléculaires différents 24, 25, 26. L&#39; auto-assemblage est une technique puissante pour atteindre nanostructures évolutives et rentables 23. Cependant, le processus de fabrication est plus complexe par rapport aux micro et nano fabrication des procédés classiques, et le contrôle des tailles nano-gap est pas assez précis pour des applications de dispositifs électroniques. Afin de fabriquer avec succès RRF base nanopilier, un procédé de fabrication roman doit être inventé pour atteindre les objectifs suivants: i) le processus de fabrication est facile à appliquer et est compatible avec la conventional micro et nano fabrication processus; ii) la fabrication sur une grande surface est applicable; iii) la taille nano-gap peuvent être facilement et précisément contrôlé avec une résolution de 0,1 nm et peuvent être réduites à 10 nm ou moins. Un procédé de fabrication nouvelle est démontrée en utilisant la combinaison d&#39;un processus de galvanoplastie et un dépôt de couche (ALD) processus atomique pour fabriquer RRF à base nanopilier. Depuis la galvanoplastie est un processus d&#39;auto-remplissage avec un faible coût, il est facile de fabriquer des structures sur une grande surface. ALD est un procédé de dépôt chimique en phase vapeur (CVD), qui peut être contrôlé précisément par le cycle de réaction pendant le processus. La résolution du film mince ALD peut être de 0,1 nm, et le film mince est uniformément revêtu d&#39;une haute qualité, qui est adapté pour créer des lacunes à l&#39; échelle nanométrique 27, 28. SRR tableau à base de nanopilier-10 avec des lacunes nm ou moins peut être fabriqué avec succès sur une superficie de 6 mm x 6 mm. Les deux sLes spectres de transmission THz imulated et mesurées montrent des comportements de résonance avec ultra-haute Q-facteurs et les grands décalages de fréquence, ce qui prouve la faisabilité des RRF basée nanopilier médiées par le courant de déplacement. Le procédé de fabrication détaillé est décrit ci-dessous dans la section de protocole, et le protocole vidéo peut aider les praticiens à comprendre le processus de fabrication et d&#39;éviter les erreurs courantes associées à la fabrication de SRR à base nanopilier.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Silicon Wafer</td><td>Siltronic AG</td><td>N/A</td><td>100 mm diameter, N-type, one-side polish, resitivity: 560-840 &amp;Omega;&amp;bull;cm</td></tr><tr><td>Chromium</td><td>Kurt J. Lesker Company</td><td>EVMCR35J</td><td>99.95% pure</td></tr><tr><td>Copper</td><td>Kurt J. Lesker Company</td><td>EVMCU40QXQJ</td><td>99.99% pure</td></tr><tr><td>E-Beam Evaporator System</td><td>Rocky Mountain Vacuum Tech.</td><td>N/A</td><td>RME-2000</td></tr><tr><td>S1813 Positive Photoresist</td><td>Microposit</td><td>10018348</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Spinner</td><td>Best Tools</td><td>S0114031123</td><td>SMART COATER 100</td></tr><tr><td>Mask Aligner</td><td>Midas</td><td>MDA-400LJ</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Digital Hot Plate</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>HP131725</td><td>Super-Nuvoa series, maximum temperature: 370 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>MF319 Developer</td><td>Microposit</td><td>10018042</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Acetone</td><td>Fisher Chemical</td><td>A18P-4</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Isopropyl Alcohol</td><td>Fisher Chemical</td><td>A416-4</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Gold 25 ES RTU</td><td>Technic Inc.</td><td>391427</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Source Meter</td><td>Keithley</td><td>N/A</td><td>2612 System SourceMeter</td></tr><tr><td>Microscope</td><td>Omax</td><td>NJF-120A</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Profilometer</td><td>Tencor Instruments</td><td>N/A</td><td>Alpha-Step 200</td></tr><tr><td>APS Copper Etchant 100</td><td>Transfene Company, Inc.</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>CE-5 M Chromium Mask Etchant</td><td>Transfene Company, Inc.</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Atomic Layer Deposition System</td><td>Cambridge Nano Tech inc.</td><td>N/A</td><td>Savannah series</td></tr><tr><td>Ion Mill Etching System</td><td>Intlvac Thin Film</td><td>N/A</td><td>Nanoquest series</td></tr><tr><td>Ultrasonic Cleaner</td><td>Crest Ultrasonics</td><td>N/A</td><td>Powersonic series</td></tr><tr><td>Hydrofluoric Acid</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>244279</td><td>Diluted to 5%</td></tr><tr><td>Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscope</td><td>Jeol Ltd.</td><td>N/A</td><td>JEOL 6700 series</td></tr></tbody></table>

fabrication of nanopillar-based split ring resonators for displacement current mediated resonances in terahertz metamaterials

Terahertz (THz) anneau fendu résonateur (SRR) métamatériaux (SMM) a été étudié pour le gaz, chimique, et les applications de détection biomoléculaires parce que le SRR est pas affectée par les caractéristiques environnementales telles que la température et la pression entourant le résonateur. un rayonnement électromagnétique à des fréquences THz est biocompatible, ce qui est une condition critique en particulier pour l&#39;application de la détection de biomolécules. Cependant, le facteur de qualité (Q-factor) et les réponses en fréquence de couches minces à base de résonateur traditionnel anneau fendu (SRR) MMs sont très faibles, ce qui limite leur sensibilité et sélectivité des capteurs. Dans ce travail, les nouveaux MMs SRR base nanopilier, en utilisant le courant de déplacement, sont conçus pour améliorer le facteur Q jusqu&#39;à 450, ce qui est environ 45 fois plus élevé que celui des MMs traditionnels à base de couches minces. En plus du facteur Q amélioré, les MMs base nanopilier-induisent un plus grand décalages de fréquence (17 fois par rapport au décalage obtenu par la traditional film mince de MMs base). En raison des facteurs Q considérablement améliorées et des décalages de fréquence, ainsi que la propriété de rayonnement biocompatible, la SRR à base de nanopilier-THz sont MMs idéales pour le développement de capteurs biomoléculaires avec une grande sensibilité et une sélectivité sans induire des dommages ou une distorsion de biomatériaux. Un nouveau procédé de fabrication a été démontré pour construire les RRF à base nanopilier-MMs pour THz courant de déplacement à médiation. A (Au) processus de galvanoplastie en deux étapes d&#39;or et une (ALD) processus de dépôt de couches atomiques sont utilisés pour créer des lacunes sous-10 nm échelle entre Au nanopiliers. Étant donné que le procédé ALD est un procédé de revêtement enrobant, d&#39; un oxyde d&#39;aluminium uniforme (Al 2 O 3) avec une épaisseur de couche à l&#39; échelle nanométrique peut être réalisée. Par galvanoplastie séquentiellement un autre film mince Au pour remplir les espaces entre Al 2 O 3 et Au, un gros emballé Au-Al 2 O 3 -Au structure à l&#39; échelle nanométrique Al 2 O 3 lacunes peuvent êtrefabriqué. La taille des nano-trous peut être bien définie en contrôlant avec précision les cycles de dépôt du procédé ALD, qui a une précision de 0,1 nm.

<html> Des systèmes de fabrication présentent chacune des étapes (figure 2a-x). Les images optiques (figure 2a) et en courant alternatif au microscope électronique à balayage (MEB) des images (figure 2AD-Ag) ont été recueillies pour les RRF à base nanopilier-à différentes étapes de fabrication. Animations (Figure 2a-c) illustrent la première couche de galvanoplastie Au nanopiliers et la second...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication of Nanopillar-Based Split Ring Resonators for Displacement Current Mediated Resonances in Terahertz Metamaterials at JoVE.com

Fabrication of Nanopillar-Based Split Ring Resonators for Displacement Current Mediated Resonances in Terahertz Metamaterials

Un protocole pour la conception et la fabrication d&#39;une base nanopilier-roman anneau fendu résonateur (SRR) est présenté.

Fabrication d&#39;anneaux résonateurs fendus nanopilier-Based pour courant de déplacement Mediated Résonances en térahertz métamatériaux

Terahertz (THz) split ring resonator (SRR) metamaterials (MMs) has been studied for gas, chemical, and biomolecular sensing applications because the SRR ...

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Electromagnetic Induction

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7.7K vues.  University of Minnesota.  Un protocole pour la conception et la fabrication d'une base nanopilier-roman anneau fendu résonateur (SRR) est présenté. 

Vidéo: Fabrication of Nanopillar-Based Split Ring Resonators for Displacement Current Mediated Resonances in Terahertz Metamaterials

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

Fabrication de silice Ultra High microrésonateurs facteur de qualité

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

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Fabricating Metamaterials Using the Fiber Drawing Method

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe their electromagnetic properties to the structure of their constituents, instead of the atoms that compose them. For example, sub-wavelength metal wires can be arranged to possess an effective electric permittivity that is either positive or negative at a given frequency, in contrast to the metals themselves 2. This unprecedented control over the behaviour of light can potentially lead to a number of novel devices, such as invisibility cloaks 3, negative refractive index materials 4, and lenses that resolve objects below the diffraction limit 5. However, metamaterials operating at optical, mid-infrared and terahertz frequencies are conventionally made using nano- and micro-fabrication techniques that are expensive and produce samples that are at most a few centimetres in size 6-7. Here we present a fabrication method to produce hundreds of meters of metal wire metamaterials in fiber form, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response 8. We combine the stack-and-draw technique used to produce microstructured polymer optical fiber 9 with the Taylor-wire process 10, using indium wires inside polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) tubes. PMMA is chosen because it is an easy to handle, drawable dielectric with suitable optical properties in the terahertz region; indium because it has a melting temperature of 156.6 &deg;C which is appropriate for codrawing with PMMA. We include an indium wire of 1 mm diameter and 99.99% purity in a PMMA tube with 1 mm inner diameter (ID) and 12 mm outside diameter (OD) which is sealed at one end. The tube is evacuated and drawn down to an outer diameter of 1.2 mm. The resulting fiber is then cut into smaller pieces, and stacked into a larger PMMA tube. This stack is sealed at one end and fed into a furnace while being rapidly drawn, reducing the diameter of the structure by a factor of 10, and increasing the length by a factor of 100. Such fibers possess features on the micro- and nano- scale, are inherently flexible, mass-producible, and can be woven to exhibit electromagnetic properties that are not found in nature. They represent a promising platform for a number of novel devices from terahertz to optical frequencies, such as invisible fibers, woven negative refractive index cloths, and super-resolving lenses.

Metamaterials at terahertz frequencies offer unique opportunities, but are challenging to fabricate in bulk. We adapt the fabrication procedure for microstructured polymer optical fibers to inexpensively fabricate metamaterials potentially on an industrial scale. We produce polymethylmethacrylate fibers containing ~10 &mu;m diameter indium wires separated by ~100 &mu;m, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response.

Les métamatériaux Fabricating aide de la méthode de tirage de fibre

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe ...

Terahertz Microfluidic Sensing Using a Parallel-plate Waveguide Sensor

Refractive index (RI) sensing is a powerful noninvasive and label-free sensing technique for the identification, detection and monitoring of microfluidic samples with a wide range of possible sensor designs such as interferometers and resonators 1,2. Most of the existing RI sensing applications focus on biological materials in aqueous solutions in visible and IR frequencies, such as DNA hybridization and genome sequencing. At terahertz frequencies, applications include quality control, monitoring of industrial processes and sensing and detection applications involving nonpolar materials.
Several potential designs for refractive index sensors in the terahertz regime exist, including photonic crystal waveguides 3, asymmetric split-ring resonators 4, and photonic band gap structures integrated into parallel-plate waveguides 5. Many of these designs are based on optical resonators such as rings or cavities. The resonant frequencies of these structures are dependent on the refractive index of the material in or around the resonator. By monitoring the shifts in resonant frequency the refractive index of a sample can be accurately measured and this in turn can be used to identify a material, monitor contamination or dilution, etc.
The sensor design we use here is based on a simple parallel-plate waveguide 6,7. A rectangular groove machined into one face acts as a resonant cavity (Figures 1 and 2). When terahertz radiation is coupled into the waveguide and propagates in the lowest-order transverse-electric (TE1) mode, the result is a single strong resonant feature with a tunable resonant frequency that is dependent on the geometry of the groove 6,8. This groove can be filled with nonpolar liquid microfluidic samples which cause a shift in the observed resonant frequency that depends on the amount of liquid in the groove and its refractive index 9.
Our technique has an advantage over other terahertz techniques in its simplicity, both in fabrication and implementation, since the procedure can be accomplished with standard laboratory equipment without the need for a clean room or any special fabrication or experimental techniques. It can also be easily expanded to multichannel operation by the incorporation of multiple grooves 10. In this video we will describe our complete experimental procedure, from the design of the sensor to the data analysis and determination of the sample refractive index.

The procedure for implementing a refractive index sensor for terahertz frequencies based on a grooved parallel-plate waveguide geometry is described here. The method yields a measurement of the refractive index of a small volume of liquid through monitoring of the shift in the resonant frequency of the waveguide structure

Terahertz détection microfluidique en utilisant un capteur de guide d&#39;ondes à plaques parallèles

Refractive index (RI) sensing is a powerful noninvasive and label-free sensing technique for the identification, detection and monitoring of microfluidic ...

Simulation, Fabrication and Characterization of THz Metamaterial Absorbers

Metamaterials (MM), artificial materials engineered to have properties that may not be found in nature, have been widely explored since the first theoretical1 and experimental demonstration2 of their unique properties. MMs can provide a highly controllable electromagnetic response, and to date have been demonstrated in every technologically relevant spectral range including the optical3, near IR4, mid IR5 , THz6 , mm-wave7 , microwave8 and radio9 bands. Applications include perfect lenses10, sensors11, telecommunications12, invisibility cloaks13 and filters14,15. We have recently developed single band16, dual band17 and broadband18 THz metamaterial absorber devices capable of greater than 80% absorption at the resonance peak. The concept of a MM absorber is especially important at THz frequencies where it is difficult to find strong frequency selective THz absorbers19. In our MM absorber the THz radiation is absorbed in a thickness of ~ &lambda;/20, overcoming the thickness limitation of traditional quarter wavelength absorbers. MM absorbers naturally lend themselves to THz detection applications, such as thermal sensors, and if integrated with suitable THz sources (e.g. QCLs), could lead to compact, highly sensitive, low cost, real time THz imaging systems.

This protocol outlines the simulation, fabrication and characterization of THz metamaterial absorbers. Such absorbers, when coupled with an appropriate sensor, have applications in THz imaging and spectroscopy.

Simulation, fabrication et caractérisation de THz Absorbeurs métamatériaux

Metamaterials (MM),  artificial materials engineered to have properties that may not be found in  nature, have been widely explored since the first ...

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various areas of technology and applied science, such as aerospace and communication engineering, sensing, metrology, nonlinear photonics, and quantum optics. In this article, we present the principal techniques used in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators. First detailed in this article is the protocol for resonator polishing, which is based on a grind-and-polish technique close to the ones used to polish optical components such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Then, a white light interferometric profilometer measures surface roughness, which is a key parameter to characterize the quality of the polishing. In order to launch light in the resonator, a tapered silica fiber with diameter in the micrometer range is used. To reach such small diameters, we adopt the "flame-brushing" technique, using simultaneously computer-controlled motors to pull the fiber apart, and a blowtorch to heat the fiber area to be tapered. The resonator and the tapered fiber are later approached to one another to visualize the resonance signal of the whispering gallery modes using a wavelength-scanning laser. By increasing the optical power in the resonator, nonlinear phenomena are triggered until the formation of a Kerr optical frequency comb is observed with a spectrum made of equidistant spectral lines. These Kerr comb spectra have exceptional characteristics that are suitable for several applications in science and technology. We consider the application related to ultra-stable microwave frequency synthesis and demonstrate the generation of a Kerr comb with GHz intermodal frequency.

The customized techniques developed in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators are presented. The protocols to obtain and characterize these resonators are detailed, and an explanation of some of their applications in microwave photonics is given.

Les systèmes photoniques à micro-ondes Basé sur des résonateurs-galerie-mode de chuchotement

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

Design, Fabrication, and Experimental Characterization of Plasmonic Photoconductive Terahertz Emitters

In this video article we present a detailed demonstration of a highly efficient method for generating terahertz waves. Our technique is based on photoconduction, which has been one of the most commonly used techniques for terahertz generation 1-8. Terahertz generation in a photoconductive emitter is achieved by pumping an ultrafast photoconductor with a pulsed or heterodyned laser illumination. The induced photocurrent, which follows the envelope of the pump laser, is routed to a terahertz radiating antenna connected to the photoconductor contact electrodes to generate terahertz radiation. Although the quantum efficiency of a photoconductive emitter can theoretically reach 100%, the relatively long transport path lengths of photo-generated carriers to the contact electrodes of conventional photoconductors have severely limited their quantum efficiency. Additionally, the carrier screening effect and thermal breakdown strictly limit the maximum output power of conventional photoconductive terahertz sources. To address the quantum efficiency limitations of conventional photoconductive terahertz emitters, we have developed a new photoconductive emitter concept which incorporates a plasmonic contact electrode configuration to offer high quantum-efficiency and ultrafast operation simultaneously. By using nano-scale plasmonic contact electrodes, we significantly reduce the average photo-generated carrier transport path to photoconductor contact electrodes compared to conventional photoconductors 9. Our method also allows increasing photoconductor active area without a considerable increase in the capacitive loading to the antenna, boosting the maximum terahertz radiation power by preventing the carrier screening effect and thermal breakdown at high optical pump powers. By incorporating plasmonic contact electrodes, we demonstrate enhancing the optical-to-terahertz power conversion efficiency of a conventional photoconductive terahertz emitter by a factor of 50 10.

We describe methods for the design, fabrication, and experimental characterization of plasmonic photoconductive emitters, which offer two orders of magnitude higher terahertz power levels compared to conventional photoconductive emitters.

Conception, fabrication et expérimentale Caractérisation des plasmoniques émetteurs térahertz Photoconductive

In this video article we present a detailed demonstration of a highly efficient method for generating terahertz waves. Our technique is based on ...

Implementation of a Reference Interferometer for Nanodetection

A thermally and mechanically stabilized fiber interferometer suited for examining ultra-high quality factor microcavities is fashioned. After assessing its free spectral range (FSR), the module is put in parallel with a fiber taper-microcavity system and then calibrated through isolating and eliminating random shifts in the laser frequency (i.e. laser jitter noise). To realize the taper-microcavity junction and to maximize the optical power that is transferred to the resonator, a single-mode optical fiber waveguide is pulled. Solutions containing polystyrene nanobeads are then prepared and flown to the microcavity in order to demonstrate the system&#8217;s ability to sense binding to the surface of the microcavity. Data is post-processed via adaptive curve fitting, which allows for high-resolution measurements of the quality factor as well as the plotting of time-dependent parameters, such as resonant wavelength and split frequency shifts. By carefully inspecting steps in the time-domain response and shifting in the frequency-domain response, this instrument can quantify discrete binding events.

A reference interferometer technique, which is designed to remove undesirable laser jitter noise for nanodetection, is utilized for probing an ultra-high quality factor microcavity. Instructions for assembly, setup, and data acquisition are provided, alongside the measurement process for specifying the cavity quality factor.

La mise en œuvre d&#39;un interféromètre de référence pour Nanodetection

A thermally and mechanically stabilized fiber interferometer suited for examining ultra-high quality factor microcavities is fashioned. After assessing ...

Utilization of Plasmonic and Photonic Crystal Nanostructures for Enhanced Micro- and Nanoparticle Manipulation

A method to manipulate the position and orientation of submicron particles nondestructively would be an incredibly useful tool for basic biological research. Perhaps the most widely used physical force to achieve noninvasive manipulation of small particles has been dielectrophoresis(DEP).1 However, DEP on its own lacks the versatility and precision that are desired when manipulating cells since it is traditionally done with stationary electrodes. Optical tweezers, which utilize a three dimensional electromagnetic field gradient to exert forces on small particles, achieve this desired versatility and precision.2 However, a major drawback of this approach is the high radiation intensity required to achieve the necessary force to trap a particle which can damage biological samples.3 A solution that allows trapping and sorting with lower optical intensities are optoelectronic tweezers (OET) but OET's have limitations with fine manipulation of small particles; being DEP-based technology also puts constraint on the property of the solution.4,5
This video article will describe two methods that decrease the intensity of the radiation needed for optical manipulation of living cells and also describe a method for orientation control. The first method is plasmonic tweezers which use a random gold nanoparticle (AuNP) array as a substrate for the sample as shown in Figure 1. The AuNP array converts the incident photons into localized surface plasmons (LSP) which consist of resonant dipole moments that radiate and generate a patterned radiation field with a large gradient in the cell solution. Initial work on surface plasmon enhanced trapping by Righini et al and our own modeling have shown the fields generated by the plasmonic substrate reduce the initial intensity required by enhancing the gradient field that traps the particle.6,7,8 The plasmonic approach allows for fine orientation control of ellipsoidal particles and cells with low optical intensities because of more efficient optical energy conversion into mechanical energy and a dipole-dependent radiation field. These fields are shown in figure 2 and the low trapping intensities are detailed in figures 4 and 5. The main problems with plasmonic tweezers are that the LSP's generate a considerable amount of heat and the trapping is only two dimensional. This heat generates convective flows and thermophoresis which can be powerful enough to expel submicron particles from the trap.9,10 The second approach that we will describe is utilizing periodic dielectric nanostructures to scatter incident light very efficiently into diffraction modes, as shown in figure 6.11 Ideally, one would make this structure out of a dielectric material to avoid the same heating problems experienced with the plasmonic tweezers but in our approach an aluminum-coated diffraction grating is used as a one-dimensional periodic dielectric nanostructure. Although it is not a semiconductor, it did not experience significant heating and effectively trapped small particles with low trapping intensities, as shown in figure 7. Alignment of particles with the grating substrate conceptually validates the proposition that a 2-D photonic crystal could allow precise rotation of non-spherical micron sized particles.10 The efficiencies of these optical traps are increased due to the enhanced fields produced by the nanostructures described in this paper.

Plasmonic tweezers and photonic crystal nanostructures are shown to produce useful enhancements in the efficiency and orientation control of optically trapping micro- and nano-particles.

L&#39;utilisation de nanostructures cristal plasmonique et photoniques pour la manipulation des micro-et nanoparticules améliorée

A method to manipulate the position and orientation of submicron particles nondestructively would be an incredibly useful tool for basic biological ...

Bio-ingénierie

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) for the detection of faint astrophysical signatures, as well as for quantum computing applications and materials characterization. In this paper, procedures are presented for the fabrication and characterization of thin-film superconducting microwave resonators. The fabrication methodology allows for the realization of superconducting transmission-line resonators with features on both sides of an atomically smooth single-crystal silicon dielectric. This work describes the procedure for the installation of resonator devices into a cryogenic microwave testbed and for cool-down below the superconducting transition temperature. The set-up of the cryogenic microwave testbed allows one to do careful measurements of the complex microwave transmission of these resonator devices, enabling the extraction of the properties of the superconducting lines and dielectric substrate (e.g., internal quality factors, loss and kinetic inductance fractions), which are important for device design and performance.

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for detection of light, quantum computing applications and materials characterization. This work presents a detailed procedure for fabrication and characterization of superconducting microwave resonator scattering parameters.

Fabrication et caractérisation de supraconductrices Resonators

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

Fabrication of 1-D Photonic Crystal Cavity on a Nanofiber Using Femtosecond Laser-induced Ablation

We present a protocol for fabricating 1-D Photonic Crystal (PhC) cavities on subwavelength-diameter tapered optical fibers, optical nanofibers, using femtosecond laser-induced ablation. We show that thousands of periodic nano-craters are fabricated on an optical nanofiber by irradiating with just a single femtosecond laser pulse. For a typical sample, periodic nano-craters with a period of 350 nm and with diameter gradually varying from 50 - 250 nm over a length of 1 mm are fabricated on a nanofiber with diameter around 450 - 550 nm. A key aspect of such a nanofabrication is that the nanofiber itself acts as a cylindrical lens and focuses the femtosecond laser beam on its shadow surface. Moreover, the single-shot fabrication makes it immune to mechanical instabilities and other fabrication imperfections. Such periodic nano-craters on nanofiber, act as a 1-D PhC and enable strong and broadband reflection while maintaining the high transmission out of the stopband. We also present a method to control the profile of the nano-crater array to fabricate apodized and defect-induced PhC cavities on the nanofiber. The strong confinement of the field, both transverse and longitudinal, in the nanofiber-based PhC cavities and the efficient integration to the fiber networks, may open new possibilities for nanophotonic applications and quantum information science.

We present a protocol for fabricating 1-D photonic crystal cavities on subwavelength diameter silica fibers (optical nanofibers) using femtosecond laser-induced ablation.

Fabrication de 1-D Cristal Photonique Cavity sur un nanofibres utilisant Ablation laser femtoseconde induite

We present a protocol for fabricating 1-D Photonic Crystal (PhC) cavities on subwavelength-diameter tapered optical fibers, optical nanofibers, using ...

Fabrication d'anneaux résonateurs fendus nanopilier-Based pour courant de déplacement Mediated Résonances en térahertz métamatériaux

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