The authors at Shenzhen University greatly acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51520105012 and 51278303) and the (Key) Project of Department of Education of Guangdong Province. (No.2014KZDXM051). They also thank the Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Durability for Marine Civil Engineering, College of Civil Engineering at Shenzhen University for providing testing facilities and equipment.

1. Testing the Specimen and the Manufacturing Process
<ol>
	<li>Acquire a 500 mm long, 14 mm diameter plain steel bar (grade Q235) for the manufacturing of the test specimens.</li>
	<li>Polish the surface of the bar using a fine sandpaper to remove the mill scales on the surface.</li>
	<li>Cut the bar at 30 mm and 470 mm from its left end, as shown in Figure 1, using a cutting machine.</li>
	<li>Measure the weights of the three bar specimens, using a digital electronic sca...

<ol>
	<li>Cavaco, E. S., Bastos, A., Santos, F. A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+corrosion+on+the+behaviour+of+precast+concrete+floor+systems.">Effects of corrosion on the behaviour of precast concrete floor systems.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 145, (2017).</li><li>Cavaco, E. S., Neves, L. A. C., Casas, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+robustness+to+corrosion+in+the+life+cycle+assessment+of+an+existing+reinforced+concrete+bridge.">On the robustness to corrosion in the life cycle assessment of an existing reinforced concrete bridge.</a> Structure and Infrastructure Engineering. 14 (2), 137-150 (2017).</li><li>Muthulingam, S., Rao, B. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-uniform+corrosion+states+of+rebar+in+concrete+under+chloride+environment.">Non-uniform corrosion states of rebar in concrete under chloride environment.</a> Corrosion Science. 93, 267-282 (2015).</li><li>Apostolopoulos, C. A., Papadakis, V. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Consequences+of+steel+corrosion+on+the+ductility+properties+of+reinforcement+bar.">Consequences of steel corrosion on the ductility properties of reinforcement bar.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 22 (12), 2316-2324 (2008).</li><li>Fernandez, I., Bair&#225;n, J. M., Mar&#237;, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corrosion+effects+on+the+mechanical+properties+of+reinforcing+steel+bars.+Fatigue+and+&#963;+-+&#949;+behavior.">Corrosion effects on the mechanical properties of reinforcing steel bars. Fatigue and &#963; - &#949; behavior.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 101, 772-783 (2015).</li><li>Papadopoulos, M. P., Apostolopoulos, C. A., Zervaki, A. D., Haidemenopoulos, G. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corrosion+of+exposed+rebars,+associated+mechanical+degradation+and+correlation+with+accelerated+corrosion+tests.">Corrosion of exposed rebars, associated mechanical degradation and correlation with accelerated corrosion tests.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 25 (8), 3367-3374 (2011).</li><li>Castro, H., Rodriguez, C., Belzunce, F. J., Canteli, A. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+properties+and+corrosion+behaviour+of+stainless+steel+reinforcing+bars.">Mechanical properties and corrosion behaviour of stainless steel reinforcing bars.</a> Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 143 (1), 134-137 (2003).</li><li>Almusallam, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+degree+of+corrosion+on+the+properties+of+reinforcing+steel+bars.">Effect of degree of corrosion on the properties of reinforcing steel bars.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 15 (8), 361-368 (2001).</li><li>Papadopoulos, M. P., Apostolopoulos, C. A., Alexopoulos, N. D., Pantelakis, S. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+salt+spray+corrosion+exposure+on+the+mechanical+performance+of+different+technical+class+reinforcing+steel+bars.">Effect of salt spray corrosion exposure on the mechanical performance of different technical class reinforcing steel bars.</a> Materials &amp; Design. 28 (8), 2318-2328 (2007).</li><li>Zhang, W., Song, X., Gu, X., Li, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tensile+and+fatigue+behavior+of+corroded+rebars.">Tensile and fatigue behavior of corroded rebars.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 34 (5), 409-417 (2012).</li><li>Clark, L. A., Chan, A. H. C., Du, Y. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Residual+capacity+of+corroded+reinforcing+bars.">Residual capacity of corroded reinforcing bars.</a> Magazine of Concrete Research. 57 (3), 135-147 (2005).</li><li>Chan, A. H. C., Clark, L. A., Du, Y. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+corrosion+on+ductility+of+reinforcing+bars.">Effect of corrosion on ductility of reinforcing bars.</a> Magazine of Concrete Research. 57 (7), 407-419 (2005).</li><li>Zhu, W., Fran&#231;ois, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corrosion+of+the+reinforcement+and+its+influence+on+the+residual+structural+performance+of+a+26-year-old+corroded+RC+beam.">Corrosion of the reinforcement and its influence on the residual structural performance of a 26-year-old corroded RC beam.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 51 (2), 461-472 (2014).</li><li>Fran&#231;ois, R., Khan, I., Dang, V. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+corrosion+on+mechanical+properties+of+steel+embedded+in+27-year-old+corroded+reinforced+concrete+beams.">Impact of corrosion on mechanical properties of steel embedded in 27-year-old corroded reinforced concrete beams.</a> Materials &amp; Structures. 46 (6), 899-910 (2013).</li><li>Torres-Acosta, A. A., Castro-Borges, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corrosion-Induced+Cracking+of+Concrete+Elements+Exposed+to+a+Natural+Marine+Environment+for+Five+Years.">Corrosion-Induced Cracking of Concrete Elements Exposed to a Natural Marine Environment for Five Years.</a> Corrosion. 69 (11), 1122-1131 (2013).</li><li>Li, D., Wei, R., Du, Y., Guan, X., Zhou, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+methods+of+geometrical+parameters+and+amount+of+corrosion+of+steel+bar.">Measurement methods of geometrical parameters and amount of corrosion of steel bar.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 154, 921-927 (2017).</li><li>Kashani, M. M., Crewe, A. J., Alexander, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+a+3D+optical+measurement+technique+for+stochastic+corrosion+pattern+analysis+of+reinforcing+bars+subjected+to+accelerated+corrosion.">Use of a 3D optical measurement technique for stochastic corrosion pattern analysis of reinforcing bars subjected to accelerated corrosion.</a> Corrosion Science. 73 (13), 208-221 (2013).</li><li>Tang, F., Lin, Z., Chen, G., Yi, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+corrosion+pit+measurement+and+statistical+mechanical+degradation+analysis+of+deformed+steel+bars+subjected+to+accelerated+corrosion.">Three-dimensional corrosion pit measurement and statistical mechanical degradation analysis of deformed steel bars subjected to accelerated corrosion.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 70 (2), 104-117 (2014).</li><li>Zhang, W., Zhou, B., Gu, X., Dai, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probability+Distribution+Model+for+Cross-Sectional+Area+of+Corroded+Reinforcing+Steel+Bars.">Probability Distribution Model for Cross-Sectional Area of Corroded Reinforcing Steel Bars.</a> Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. 26 (5), 822-832 (2013).</li><li>Wang, X. G., Zhang, W. P., Gu, X. L., Dai, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+residual+cross-sectional+areas+of+corroded+bars+in+reinforced+concrete+structures+using+easy-to-measure+variables.">Determination of residual cross-sectional areas of corroded bars in reinforced concrete structures using easy-to-measure variables.</a> Construction &amp; Building Materials. 38, 846-853 (2013).</li><li>Stewart, M. G., Al-Harthy, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pitting+corrosion+and+structural+reliability+of+corroding+RC+structures:+Experimental+data+and+probabilistic+analysis.">Pitting corrosion and structural reliability of corroding RC structures: Experimental data and probabilistic analysis.</a> Reliability Engineering &amp; System Safety. 93 (3), 373-382 (2008).</li><li>Darmawan, M. S., Stewart, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Spatially+Variable+Pitting+Corrosion+on+Structural+Reliability+of+Prestressed+Concrete+Bridge+Girders.">Effect of Spatially Variable Pitting Corrosion on Structural Reliability of Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders.</a> Australian Journal of Structural Engineering. 6 (2), 147-158 (2015).</li><li>Stewart, M. G., Mullard, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+time-dependent+reliability+analysis+of+corrosion+damage+and+the+timing+of+first+repair+for+RC+structures.">Spatial time-dependent reliability analysis of corrosion damage and the timing of first repair for RC structures.</a> Engineering Structures. 29 (7), 1457-1464 (2007).</li><li>Kashani, M. M., Lowes, L. N., Crewe, A. J., Alexander, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Finite+element+investigation+of+the+influence+of+corrosion+pattern+on+inelastic+buckling+and+cyclic+response+of+corroded+reinforcing+bars.">Finite element investigation of the influence of corrosion pattern on inelastic buckling and cyclic response of corroded reinforcing bars.</a> Engineering Structures. 75, 113-125 (2014).</li><li>Apostolopoulos, C. A., Demis, S., Papadakis, V. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chloride-induced+corrosion+of+steel+reinforcement+-+Mechanical+performance+and+pit+depth+analysis.">Chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement - Mechanical performance and pit depth analysis.</a> Construction and Building Materials. 38, 139-146 (2013).</li><li>Imperatore, S., Rinaldi, Z., Drago, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Degradation+relationships+for+the+mechanical+properties+of+corroded+steel+rebars.">Degradation relationships for the mechanical properties of corroded steel rebars.</a> Construction and Building Materials. , 219-230 (2017).</li><li>Kashani, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Size+effect+on+inelastic+buckling+behaviour+of+accelerated+pitted+1+corroded+bars+in+porous+media.">Size effect on inelastic buckling behaviour of accelerated pitted 1 corroded bars in porous media.</a> Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. 29 (7), (2017).</li><li>Meda, A., Mostosi, S., Rinaldi, Z., Riva, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+evaluation+of+the+corrosion+influence+on+the+cyclic+behaviour+of+RC+columns.">Experimental evaluation of the corrosion influence on the cyclic behaviour of RC columns.</a> Engineering Structures. 76, 112-123 (2014).</li><li>Kashani, M. M., Crewe, A. J., Alexander, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+capacity+assessment+of+corroded+RC+bridge+piers.">Structural capacity assessment of corroded RC bridge piers.</a> Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Bridge Engineering. 170 (1), 28-41 (2017).</li><li>National Standard of the People's Republic of China. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete, Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People's Republic of China, GB/T 50082-2009. , (2009).</li></ol>

Figure 6A and 6B show that the measured diameters of the non-corroded bar specimen do not vary significantly along its length. The maximum difference between the measured diameters along the bar length is only about 0.11 mm with a maximum deviation of 0.7%. This indicates that the geometry of a non-corroded bar can be well evaluated using a Vernier caliper. However, the measured diameters at different angles of the same cross-section differ consistently and considerably from...

Corrosion of a steel bar is one of the principal reasons for deterioration of a concrete structure and is caused by concrete carbonation and/or chloride intrusion. In concrete carbonation, corrosion tends to be generalized; while in chloride intrusion, it becomes more localized1,2. No matter what the causes are, corrosion cracks the concrete cover from radial expansion of corrosion products, deteriorates the bond between a steel bar and its surrounding concrete, penetrates the bar surfaces, and decreases the bar cross-sectional area considerably3,4.
Due to the non-homogeneity of structural concrete and variations in the service environment, corrosion of a steel bar occurs randomly over its surface and along its length with great uncertainty. Contrary to the generalized uniform corrosion caused by concrete carbonation, the pitting corrosion caused by chloride intrusion causes attack penetration. Furthermore, it causes the residual section of a corroded bar to vary considerably among the bar surface and length. As a result, the bar strength and bar ductility decrease. Extensive research has been performed to study the effects of corrosion on mechanical properties of a steel bar5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15. However, less attention has been given to the measurement methods of morphological parameters and corrosion characteristics of steel bars.
Some researchers have used mass loss to evaluate the amount of corrosion of a steel bar5,10,11,14. However, this method can only be used to determine the average value of the residual sections and cannot measure the distribution of the sections along its length. Zhu and Franco have improved this method by cutting a single steel bar into a series of short segments and weighing each segment to determine variations of the areas of the residual sections along its length13,14. However, this method causes extra loss of the steel material during the cutting and cannot touch the minimum residual section of the corroded bar exactly, which dominates its bearing capacity. A Vernier caliper is also used to measure the geometric parameters of a steel bar14,15. However, the residual section of a corroded bar is very irregular, and there is always a significant deviation between the measured and actual sectional dimensions of a corroded bar. Based on Archimedes&#39; principle, Clark et al. adopted the drainage method to measure the residual sections of a corroded bar along its length, but displacement of the bar was manually controlled without significant accuracy in this case11. Li et al. improved this drainage method by using an electric motor to automatically control the displacement of a steel bar and measure results more accurately16. Finally, over the past few years, with the development of 3D scanning technology, this method has been used to measure the geometric dimensions of a steel bar17,18,19,20. Using 3D scanning, the diameter, residual area, centroid, eccentricity, moment of inertia, and corrosion penetration of a steel bar can be precisely acquired. Although researchers have used these methods in different experimental settings, there has not been a comparison and evaluation of the methods with respect to their precision, suitability and applicability.
Corrosion, particularly pitting corrosion, compared to generalized corrosion, not only changes the mechanical properties of corroded bars but also decreases the residual bearing capacity and service life of concrete structures. More accurate measurements of morphological parameters of corroded steel bars for the spatial variability of corrosion along bar length are imperative for more reasonable assessments of bar mechanical properties. This will help evaluate the safety and reliability of reinforced concrete (RC) structures damaged by corrosion more precisely21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29.
This protocol compares the five discussed methods for measuring the geometry and amount of corrosion of a steel bar. A single, 500 mm long and 14 mm in diameter, plain round bar was used as the specimen and subjected to accelerated corrosion in the lab. Its morphology and level of corrosion were carefully measured before and after using each method, including mass loss, a Vernier caliper, drainage measurements, 3D scanning, and X-ray micro computed tomography (XCT). Finally, the applicability and suitability of each were evaluated.
It should be noted that the ribbed bars embedded in concrete, not the plain bars exposed to air, are commonly used in concrete structures and subjected to corrosion. For ribbed bars, the Vernier caliper may not be as easily applied. Because these bars corrode in concrete, their surface penetration is more irregular compared to bars exposed to air11. However, this protocol is geared towards the applicability of analysis of different measurement methods on the same bar; therefore, it uses a naked plain bar as the specimen to eliminate the influence of ribs and concrete non-homogeneity on morphological parameter measurements. Further work on the measurement of corroded ribbed bars using other methods may be carried out in the future.

<table>
	<tbody>
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			<td>Plastic ruler</td>
			<td>Deli Group Co.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>No.6240</td>
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			<td>white paint pen</td>
			<td>SINO PATH Enterprises.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>SP-110</td>
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			<td>Tube with Branch</td>
			<td>Customized-made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Measurement cylinder</td>
			<td>Beijing Huake Bomex Glass Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>500mL Beaker</td>
			<td>Beijing Huake Bomex Glass Co. , Ltd.</td>
			<td>CP-201</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>sandpaper</td>
			<td>Shanghai Noon Decoration Material Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>P04</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>white developer</td>
			<td>SHANGHAI XINMEIDA FLAW DETECTION MATERIAL CO., LTD.</td>
			<td>FA-5</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>epoxy resin adhesive</td>
			<td>Hunan Baxiongdi New Material Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>DY&#183;E&#183;44</td>
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			<td>epoxy hardener</td>
			<td>Hunan Baxiongdi New Material Co., Ltd.</td>
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			<td>Dongguan Dongjiang Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.</td>
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			<td>Xilong Chemical Co., Ltd.</td>
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			<td>Kaifeng Group Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>Model JCS-0040</td>
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			<td>Digital vernier caliper</td>
			<td>Shanghai Measuring &#38; Cutting Tool Works Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>Model ST-089-229-090</td>
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			<td>Cutting machine</td>
			<td>Robert Bosch GmbH</td>
			<td>TCO2000</td>
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			<td>3D reconstructed X-ray microscope</td>
			<td>XRADIA</td>
			<td>Model MICROXCT-400</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>3D scanner</td>
			<td>HOLON Three-dimensional Technology(Shenzhen) Co.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>Model HL-3DX+</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td>Electromechanical Universal Testing Machine</td>
			<td>MTS SYSTEMS (China) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>Model C64.305</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

applicability analysis of assessment methods for morphological parameters of corroded steel bars

The irregular and uneven residual sections along the length of a corroded steel bar substantially change its mechanical properties and significantly dominate the safety and performance of an existing concrete structure. As a result, it is important to measure the geometry and amount of corrosion of a steel bar in a structure properly to assess the residual bearing capacity and service life of the structure. This paper introduces and compares five different methods for measuring the geometry and amount of corrosion of a steel bar. A single 500 mm long and 14 mm diameter steel bar is the specimen that is subjected to accelerated corrosion in this protocol. Its morphology and the amount of corrosion were carefully measured before and after using mass loss measurements, a Vernier caliper, drainage measurements, 3D scanning, and X-ray micro-computed tomography (XCT). The applicability and suitability of these different methods were then evaluated. The results show that the Vernier caliper is the best choice for measuring the morphology of a non-corroded bar, while 3D scanning is the most suitable for quantifying the morphology of a corroded bar.

Figure 6 shows the diameters of the 500 mm long non-corroded bar specimen at angles of 0&#176;, 45&#176;, 90&#176;, and 135&#176; for each section along its length measured using Vernier calipers. The bars were then cut into three parts, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 7 presents the cross-sectional areas of the non-corroded bar specimens alon...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Applicability Analysis of Assessment Methods for Morphological Parameters of Corroded Steel Bars at JoVE.com

Applicability Analysis of Assessment Methods for Morphological Parameters of Corroded Steel Bars

This paper measures the geometry and the amount of corrosion of a steel bar using different methods: mass loss, calipers, drainage measurements, 3D scanning, and X-ray micro-computed tomography (XCT).

The irregular and uneven residual sections along the length of a corroded steel bar substantially change its mechanical properties and significantly ...

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6.3K vues.  Shenzhen University. Cette vidéo vise à mesurer la morphologie de surface des barres d’acier intactes et corrodées. Nous démontrerons et évaluerons cinq mesures différentes, y compris la perte de masse, les mesures de l’étrier vernier, les mesures de drainage, le balayage 3D et le XCT de la barre d’acier. Le balayage 3D est la meilleure méthode pour mesurer la variabilité spaciale de la pénétration de corrosion à la surface d’une barre corrodée.Les mesures de corrosion obtenues avec la...

Vidéo: Applicability Analysis of Assessment Methods for Morphological Parameters of Corroded Steel Bars

Mechanical Expansion of Steel Tubing as a Solution to Leaky Wellbores

Wellbore cement, a procedural component of wellbore completion operations, primarily provides zonal isolation and mechanical support of the metal pipe (casing), and protects metal components from corrosive fluids. These are essential for uncompromised wellbore integrity. Cements can undergo multiple forms of failure, such as debonding at the cement/rock and cement/metal interfaces, fracturing, and defects within the cement matrix. Failures and defects within the cement will ultimately lead to fluid migration, resulting in inter-zonal fluid migration and premature well abandonment. Currently, there are over 1.8 million operating wells worldwide and over one third of these wells have leak related problems defined as Sustained Casing Pressure (SCP)1. 
The focus of this research was to develop an experimental setup at bench-scale to explore the effect of mechanical manipulation of wellbore casing-cement composite samples as a potential technology for the remediation of gas leaks. 
The experimental methodology utilized in this study enabled formation of an impermeable seal at the pipe/cement interface in a simulated wellbore system. Successful nitrogen gas flow-through measurements demonstrated that an existing microannulus was sealed at laboratory experimental conditions and fluid flow prevented by mechanical manipulation of the metal/cement composite sample. Furthermore, this methodology can be applied not only for the remediation of leaky wellbores, but also in plugging and abandonment procedures as well as wellbore completions technology, and potentially preventing negative impacts of wellbores on subsurface and surface environments.

This article reports on a laboratory scale investigation of an existing field procedure and its adaptation for sealing of leaky wellbores. It consists of mechanical expansion of metal pipe, which results in an improved metal/cement bond, ultimate sealing of hydraulic pathways and prevention of gas leaks caused by the presence of a microannular channel.

Wellbore cement, a procedural component of wellbore completion operations, primarily provides zonal isolation and mechanical support of the metal pipe ...

Blast Quantification Using Hopkinson Pressure Bars

Near-field blast load measurement presents an issue to many sensor types as they must endure very aggressive environments and be able to measure pressures up to many hundreds of megapascals. In this respect the simplicity of the Hopkinson pressure bar has a major advantage in that while the measurement end of the Hopkinson bar can endure and be exposed to harsh conditions, the strain gauge mounted to the bar can be affixed some distance away. This allows protective housings to be utilized which protect the strain gauge but do not interfere with the measurement acquisition. The use of an array of pressure bars allows the pressure-time histories at discrete known points to be measured. This article also describes the interpolation routine used to derive pressure-time histories at un-instrumented locations on the plane of interest. Currently the technique has been used to measure loading from high explosives in free air and buried shallowly in various soils.

This protocol details the use of Hopkinson pressure bars to measure reflected blast loading from near-field explosive events. It is capable of interpolating a pressure-time history at any point on a reflective boundary and as such can be used to fully characterize the spatial and temporal variations in loading produced.

Near-field blast load measurement presents an issue to many sensor types as they must endure very aggressive environments and be able to measure pressures ...

Advanced Experimental Methods for Low-temperature Magnetotransport Measurement of Novel Materials

Novel electronic materials are often produced for the first time by synthesis processes that yield bulk crystals (in contrast to single crystal thin film synthesis) for the purpose of exploratory materials research. Certain materials pose a challenge wherein the traditional bulk Hall bar device fabrication method is insufficient to produce a measureable device for sample transport measurement, principally because the single crystal size is too small to attach wire leads to the sample in a Hall bar configuration. This can be, for example, because the first batch of a new material synthesized yields very small single crystals or because flakes of samples of one to very few monolayers are desired. In order to enable rapid characterization of materials that may be carried out in parallel with improvements to their growth methodology, a method of device fabrication for very small samples has been devised to permit the characterization of novel materials as soon as a preliminary batch has been produced. A slight variation of this methodology is applicable to producing devices using exfoliated samples of two-dimensional materials such as graphene, hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), as well as multilayer heterostructures of such materials. Here we present detailed protocols for the experimental device fabrication of fragments and flakes of novel materials with micron-sized dimensions onto substrate and subsequent measurement in a commercial superconducting magnet, dry helium close-cycle cryostat magnetotransport system at temperatures down to 0.300 K and magnetic fields up to 12 T.

We describe the methodology of mechanical exfoliation and deposition of flakes of novel materials with micron-sized dimensions onto substrate, fabrication of experimental device structures for transport experimentation, and the magnetotransport measurement in a dry helium close-cycle cryostat at temperatures down to 0.300 K and magnetic fields up to 12 T.

Novel electronic materials are often produced for the first time by synthesis processes that yield bulk crystals (in contrast to single crystal thin film ...

Experimental Methods for Investigation of Shape Memory Based Elastocaloric Cooling Processes and Model Validation

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) using elastocaloric cooling processes have the potential to be an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional vapor compression based cooling process. Nickel-Titanium (Ni-Ti) based alloy systems, especially, show large elastocaloric effects. Furthermore, exhibit large latent heats which is a necessary material property for the development of an efficient solid-state based cooling process. A scientific test rig has been designed to investigate these processes and the elastocaloric effects in SMAs. The realized test rig enables independent control of an SMA&#39;s mechanical loading and unloading cycles, as well as conductive heat transfer between SMA cooling elements and a heat source/sink. The test rig is equipped with a comprehensive monitoring system capable of synchronized measurements of mechanical and thermal parameters. In addition to determining the process-dependent mechanical work, the system also enables measurement of thermal caloric aspects of the elastocaloric cooling effect through use of a high-performance infrared camera. This combination is of particular interest, because it allows illustrations of localization and rate effects &#8212; both important for efficient heat transfer from the medium to be cooled.
The work presented describes an experimental method to identify elastocaloric material properties in different materials and sample geometries. Furthermore, the test rig is used to investigate different cooling process variations. The introduced analysis methods enable a differentiated consideration of material, process and related boundary condition influences on the process efficiency. The comparison of the experimental data with the simulation results (of a thermomechanically coupled finite element model) allows for better understanding of the underlying physics of the elastocaloric effect. In addition, the experimental results, as well as the findings based on the simulation results, are used to improve the material properties.

Experimental methods for investigation of solid state cooling processes and characterization of elastocaloric material properties of Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) are presented. A custom-built test rig has been designed for controlling and comprehensive monitoring of elastocaloric cooling processes. Furthermore, it provides a validation platform for thermomechanically coupled modeling approaches.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) using elastocaloric cooling processes have the potential to be an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional vapor ...

The Evolution of Silica Nanoparticle-polyester Coatings on Surfaces Exposed to Sunlight

Corrosion of metallic surfaces is prevalent in the environment and is of great concern in many areas, including the military, transport, aviation, building and food industries, amongst others. Polyester and coatings containing both polyester and silica nanoparticles (SiO2NPs) have been widely used to protect steel substrata from corrosion. In this study, we utilized X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, attenuated total reflection infrared micro-spectroscopy, water contact angle measurements, optical profiling and atomic force microscopy to provide an insight into how exposure to sunlight can cause changes in the micro- and nanoscale integrity of the coatings. No significant change in surface micro-topography was detected using optical profilometry, however, statistically significant nanoscale changes to the surface were detected using atomic force microscopy. Analysis of the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and attenuated total reflection infrared micro-spectroscopy data revealed that degradation of the ester groups had occurred through exposure to ultraviolet light to form COO&#903;, -H2C&#903;, -O&#903;, -CO&#903; radicals. During the degradation process, CO and CO2 were also produced.

Two types of surfaces, polyester-coated steel and polyester coated with a layer of silica nanoparticles, were studied. Both surfaces were exposed to sunlight, which was found to cause substantial changes in the chemistry and nanoscale topography of the surface.

Corrosion of metallic surfaces is prevalent in the environment and is of great concern in many areas, including the military, transport, aviation, ...

Wicking Tests for Unidirectional Fabrics: Measurements of Capillary Parameters to Evaluate Capillary Pressure in Liquid Composite Molding Processes

During impregnation of a fibrous reinforcement in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, capillary effects have to be understood in order to identify their influence on void formation in composite parts. Wicking in a fibrous medium described by the Washburn equation was considered equivalent to a flow under the effect of capillary pressure according to the Darcy law. Experimental tests for the characterization of wicking were conducted with both carbon and flax fiber reinforcement. Quasi-unidirectional fabrics were then tested by means of a tensiometer to determine the morphological and wetting parameters along the fiber direction. The procedure was shown to be promising when the morphology of the fabric is unchanged during capillary wicking. In the case of carbon fabrics, the capillary pressure can be calculated. Flax fibers are sensitive to moisture sorption and swell in water. This phenomenon has to be taken into account to assess the wetting parameters. In order to make fibers less sensitive to water sorption, a thermal treatment was carried out on flax reinforcements. This treatment enhances fiber morphological stability and prevents swelling in water. It was shown that treated fabrics have a linear wicking trend similar to those found in carbon fabrics, allowing for the determination of capillary pressure.

An experimental method to measure geometrical parameters and the apparent advancing contact angles describing capillary wicking in unidirectional synthetic and natural fabrics is proposed. These parameters are mandatory for the determination of the capillary pressures that must be taken into account for liquid composite molding (LCM) applications.

During impregnation of a fibrous reinforcement in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, capillary effects have to be understood in order to identify ...

Subsurface Defect Localization by Structured Heating Using Laser Projected Photothermal Thermography

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering thermal wave fields that are disturbed by the defect. This effect is measured and used to locate the defect. We form the destructively interfering wave fields by using a modified projector. The original light engine of the projector is replaced with a fiber-coupled high-power diode laser. Its beam is shaped and aligned to the projector&#39;s spatial light modulator and optimized for optimal optical throughput and homogeneous projection by first characterizing the beam profile, and, second, correcting it mechanically and numerically. A high-performance infrared (IR) camera is set up according to the tight geometrical situation (including corrections of the geometrical image distortions) and the requirement to detect weak temperature oscillations at the sample surface. Data acquisition can be performed once a synchronization between the individual thermal wave field sources, the scanning stage, and the IR camera is established by using a dedicated experimental setup which needs to be tuned to the specific material being investigated. During data post-processing, the relevant information on the presence of a defect below the surface of the sample is extracted. It is retrieved from the oscillating part of the acquired thermal radiation coming from the so-called depletion line of the sample surface. The exact location of the defect is deduced from the analysis of the spatial-temporal shape of these oscillations in a final step. The method is reference-free and very sensitive to changes within the thermal wave field. So far, the method has been tested with steel samples but is applicable to different materials as well, in particular to temperature sensitive materials.

This method aims at locating vertical subsurface defects. Here, we couple a laser with a spatial light modulator and trigger its video input to heat a sample surface deterministically with two anti-phased modulated lines while acquiring highly resolved thermal images. The defect position is retrieved from evaluating thermal wave interference minima.

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering ...

Preparation and High-temperature Anti-adhesion Behavior of a Slippery Surface on Stainless Steel

Anti-adhesion surfaces with high-temperature resistance have a wide application potential in electrosurgical instruments, engines, and pipelines. A typical anti-wetting superhydrophobic surface easily fails when exposed to a high-temperature liquid. Recently, Nepenthes-inspired slippery surfaces demonstrated a new way to solve the adhesion problem. A lubricant layer on the slippery surface can act as a barrier between the repelled materials and the surface structure. However, the slippery surfaces in previous studies rarely showed high-temperature resistance. Here, we describe a protocol for the preparation of slippery surfaces with high-temperature resistance. A photolithography-assisted method was used to fabricate pillar structures on stainless steel. By functionalizing the surface with saline, a slippery surface was prepared by adding silicone oil. The prepared slippery surface maintained the anti-wetting property for water, even when the surface was heated to 300 &#176;C. Also, the slippery surface exhibited great anti-adhesion effects on soft tissues at high temperatures. This type of slippery surface on stainless steel has applications in medical devices, mechanical equipment, etc.

Slippery surfaces provide a new way to solve the adhesion problem. This protocol describes how to fabricate slippery surfaces at high temperatures. The results demonstrate that the slippery surfaces showed anti-wetting for liquids and a remarkable anti-adhesion effect on soft tissues at high temperatures.

Anti-adhesion surfaces with high-temperature resistance have a wide application potential in electrosurgical instruments, engines, and pipelines. A ...

Preparation of Aligned Steel Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite and Its Flexural Behavior

The aim of this work is to present an approach, inspired by the way in which a compass needle maintains a consistent orientation under the action of the Earth&#39;s magnetic field, for manufacturing a cementitious composite reinforced with aligned steel fibers. Aligned steel fiber reinforced cementitious composites (ASFRC) were prepared by applying a uniform electromagnetic field to fresh mortar containing short steel fibers, whereby the short steel fibers were driven to rotate in alignment with the magnetic field. The degree of alignment of steel fibers in hardened ASFRC was assessed both by counting steel fibers in fractured cross-sections and by X-ray computed tomography analysis. The results from the two methods show that the steel fibers in ASFRC were highly aligned while the steel fibers in non-magnetically treated composites were randomly distributed. The aligned steel fibers had a much higher reinforcing efficiency, and the composites, therefore, exhibited significantly enhanced flexural strength and toughness. The ASFRC is thus superior to SFRC in that it can withstand greater tensile stress and more effectively resist cracking.

This protocol describes an approach for manufacturing aligned steel fiber reinforced cementitious composite by applying a uniform electromagnetic field. Aligned steel fiber reinforced cementitious composite exhibits superior mechanical properties to ordinary fiber reinforced concrete.

The aim of this work is to present an approach, inspired by the way in which a compass needle maintains a consistent orientation under the action of the ...

Generating Lap Joints Via Friction Stir Spot Welding on DP780 Steel

Friction stir spot welding (FSSW), a derivative of friction stir welding (FSW), is a solid-state welding technique that was developed in 1991. An industry application was found in the automotive industry in 2003 for the aluminum alloy that was used in the rear doors of automobiles. Friction stir spot welding is mostly used in Al alloys to create lap joints. The benefits of friction stir spot welding include a nearly 80% melting temperature that lowers the thermal deformation welds without splashing compared to resistance spot welding. Friction stir spot welding includes 3 steps: plunging, stirring, and retraction. In the present study, other materials including high strength steel are also used in the friction stir welding method to create joints. DP780, whose traditional welding process involves the use of resistance spot welding, is one of several high strength steel materials used in the automotive industry. In this paper, DP780 was used for friction stir spot welding, and its microstructure and microhardness were measured. The microstructure data showed that there was a fusion zone with fine grain and a heat effect zone with island martensite. The microhardness results indicated that the center zone exhibited a greater degree of hardness compared with the base metal. All data indicated that the friction stir spot welding used in dual phase steel 780 can create a good lap joint. In the future, friction stir spot welding can be used in high-strength steel welding applied in industrial manufacturing processes.

Here, we present a friction stir spot welding (FSSW) protocol on dual phase 780 steel. A tool pin with high-speed rotation generates heat from friction to soften the material, and then, the pin plunges into 2 sheet joints to create the lap joint.

Friction stir spot welding (FSSW), a derivative of friction stir welding (FSW), is a solid-state welding technique that was developed in 1991. An industry ...