מחקר נתמך על ידי מימון ממשרד אוניברסיטת המערב התיכון של תוכניות מחקר וממומנות. תודה גם למתקן במערב התיכון בבעלי חיים באוניברסיטה ואריק וורן.

<ol>
	<li>Butler, P. J., Jones, D. R., Lowenstein, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Advances in Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry. 8, 179-364 (1982).</li><li>Butler, P. J., Jones, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiology+of+diving+birds+and+mammals).">Physiology of diving birds and mammals).</a> Physiol. Rev. 77, 837-899 (1997).</li><li>Butler, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+regulation+in+diving+birds+and+mammals.">Metabolic regulation in diving birds and mammals.</a> Resp. Physiol. Neurobiol. 141, 297-315 (2004).</li><li>Foster, G. E., Sheel, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+human+diving+response,+its+function,+and+its+control.">The human diving response, its function, and its control.</a> Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 15, 3-12 (2005).</li><li>Lindholm, P., Lundgren, C. E. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+physiology+and+pathophysiology+of+human+breath-hold+diving.">The physiology and pathophysiology of human breath-hold diving.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 106, 284-292 (2009).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Animal+models+for+investigating+the+central+control+of+the+mammalian+diving+response.">Animal models for investigating the central control of the mammalian diving response.</a> Front. Physiol. 3, 1-16 (2012).</li><li>Krogh, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+progress+of+physiology.">The progress of physiology.</a> Am. J. Physiol. 90, 243-251 (1929).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., Gan, Q., Juric, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+rat:+a+laboratory+model+for+studies+of+the+diving+response.">The rat: a laboratory model for studies of the diving response.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 108, 811-820 (2010).</li><li>Lin, Y. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autonomic+nervous+control+of+cardiovascular+responses+during+diving+in+the+rat.">Autonomic nervous control of cardiovascular responses during diving in the rat.</a> Am. J. Physiol. 227, 601-605 (1974).</li><li>Lin, Y. C., Baker, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+output+and+its+distribution+during+diving+in+the+rat.">Cardiac output and its distribution during diving in the rat.</a> Am. J. Physiol. 228, 733-737 (1975).</li><li>Huang, T. F., Peng, Y. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+the+chemoreceptors+in+diving+bradycardia+in+the+rat.">Role of the chemoreceptors in diving bradycardia in the rat.</a> Jap. J. Physiol. 26, 395-401 (1976).</li><li>Fahlman, A., Bostrom, B. L., Dillon, K. H., Jones, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetic+component+of+the+forced+diving+bradycardia+response+in+mammals.">The genetic component of the forced diving bradycardia response in mammals.</a> Front. Physiol. 2, 1-7 (2011).</li><li>Blix, A. S., Folkow, B., Shepher, J. T., Abboud, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Handbook of Physiology. , 917-944 (1984).</li><li>Kooyman, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diverse+Divers.">Diverse Divers.</a> 200, (1989).</li><li>MacArthur, R. A., Karpan, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heart+rates+of+muskrats+diving+under+simulated+field+conditions:+persistence+of+the+bradycardia+response+and+factors+modifying+its+expression.">Heart rates of muskrats diving under simulated field conditions: persistence of the bradycardia response and factors modifying its expression.</a> Can. J. Zool. 67, 1783-1792 (1989).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Jones, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cortical+influences+on+diving+bradycardia+in+muskrats+(Ondatra+zibethicus).">Cortical influences on diving bradycardia in muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus).</a> Physiol. Zool. 63, 1098-1117 (1990).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Dinovo, K. M., Connolly, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cardiovascular+and+endocrine+responses+to+voluntary+and+forced+diving+in+trained+and+untrained+rats.">The cardiovascular and endocrine responses to voluntary and forced diving in trained and untrained rats.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 298, 224-234 (2010).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., Gan, Q., Dahms, T. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiorespiratory+and+neural+consequences+of+rats+brought+past+their+aerobic+dive+limit.">Cardiorespiratory and neural consequences of rats brought past their aerobic dive limit.</a> J. Appl. Physiol. 109, 1256-1269 (2010).</li><li>Chotiyanonta, J. S., DiNovo, K. M., McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bilateral+sectioning+of+the+anterior+ethmoidal+nerves+does+not+eliminate+the+diving+response+in+voluntarily+diving+rats.">Bilateral sectioning of the anterior ethmoidal nerves does not eliminate the diving response in voluntarily diving rats.</a> Physiol. Reports. 1, (2013).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., Anch, A. M., Panneton, W. M., Gan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parasympathetic+preganglionic+cardiac+motoneurons+labeled+after+voluntary+diving.">Parasympathetic preganglionic cardiac motoneurons labeled after voluntary diving.</a> Front. Physiol. 5, 1-10 (2014).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Ollenberger, G. P., Bekar, L. K., West, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trigeminal+and+chemoreceptor+contributions+to+bradycardia+during+voluntary+dives+in+rats.">Trigeminal and chemoreceptor contributions to bradycardia during voluntary dives in rats.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 273, 814-822 (1997).</li><li>Ollenberger, G. P., Matte, G., Wilkinson, A. A., West, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relative+distribution+of+blood+flow+in+rats+during+surface+and+submerged+swimming.">Relative distribution of blood flow in rats during surface and submerged swimming.</a> Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. 119, 271-277 (1998).</li><li>Ollenberger, G. P., West, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+of+regional+cerebral+blood+flow+in+voluntarily+diving+rats.">Distribution of regional cerebral blood flow in voluntarily diving rats.</a> J. Exp. Biol. 201, 549-558 (1998).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+the+trigeminal+medullary+dorsal+horn+during+voluntary+diving+in+rats.">Activation of the trigeminal medullary dorsal horn during voluntary diving in rats.</a> Brain Res. 1051, 194-198 (2005).</li><li>Panneton, W. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+brainstem+neurons+by+underwater+diving+in+the+rat.">Activation of brainstem neurons by underwater diving in the rat.</a> Front. Physiol. 3, 1-13 (2012).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F., Panneton, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+brainstem+catecholaminergic+neurons+during+voluntary+diving+in+rats.">Activation of brainstem catecholaminergic neurons during voluntary diving in rats.</a> Brain Res. 984, 42-53 (2003).</li><li>McCulloch, P. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Globosa+neurons:+a+distinct+subgroup+of+noradrenergic+neurons+in+the+caudal+pons+of+rats.">Globosa neurons: a distinct subgroup of noradrenergic neurons in the caudal pons of rats.</a> Brain Res. 964, 164-167 (2003).</li><li>Panneton, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mammalian+diving+response:+an+enigmatic+reflex+to+preserve+life.">The mammalian diving response: an enigmatic reflex to preserve life.</a> Physiology. 28, 284-297 (2013).</li></ol>

הכותב הוא יועץ לStoelting חברה, וסיפק את העיצוב ומפרטים של McCulloch הצלילה טנק המבוך הכולל להם למטרות מסחריות.

חולדות ביכולים ליצור לטרפם ולעשות לנצל סביבות חצי מימיים, ולעתים קרובות היא לצלול מתחת למים כשהם מחפשים מזון למזון 6. כך שזה לא מפתיע גם שחולדות יכולות להיות בקלות רבה שהוכשרו לצלול מתחת למים בהתנדבות. נהלי ההכשרה המתוארות יכולים להימשך עד 6 שבועות, שיביאו חולדו...

The diving response consists of a suite of autonomic reflexes seen in animals of all vertebrate classes 1. In response to submersion under water, this reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, bradycardia and an alteration of blood flow that maintains flow to the heart, brain and exercising muscles while limiting flow to viscera and non-exercising muscles 2. Many of the metabolic and cardiorespiratory aspects of the mammalian diving response have been well investigated 2,3, including those in humans 4,5. However, what has been relatively lacking, until recently, is investigation of the central integrative aspects of the diving response. What happens within the brainstem, and what is the neuronal step-by-step pathway, that connects afferent inputs to efferent outputs during this autonomic reflex? Answering these questions will require an appropriate animal model 6. An adage in comparative physiology, the Krogh principle 7, is that for every research question there is some animal of choice on which the problem can be most conveniently studied. A most appropriate animal for studying the central aspects of the diving response is the rat 6,8. In large part this is due to the fact that the brains of rats have been very well characterized, both anatomically and functionally, and many rat brain atlases are available 6. Additionally the rat is particularly useful in cardiorespiratory research, because the physiology of the rat is well known across all major organ systems, and the rat is well regarded as an animal model in systems biology 6. Finally, the laboratory rat is the domesticated version of the wild Rattus norvegicus, an animal that routinely swims and dives underwater 6. Based on these considerations, the rat is a good choice for studies investigating the central aspects of the mammalian diving response. In comparison, using marine animals to investigate the central aspects of the mammalian diving response would be much more difficult. This is due in large part to marine animals having comparatively large and non-uniformly sized brains, and the relative difficulty and high cost of housing these animals.
Rats have previously been used to investigate many aspects of the mammalian diving response, primarily in situations involving forced underwater submergence 9-12. However many studies in marine and aquatic animals have shown that there can be a differential response to diving based upon whether the submergence was forced or voluntary 2,13. Diving animals may show an extremely intense bradycardia during forced diving but a much less intense bradycardia during voluntary diving. The &#8220;stress&#8221; of forced submergence can significantly change the cardiovascular responses of diving in many animals 14. Small rodents such as muskrats also show a more intense diving response during forced submergence than during voluntary diving 15,16. Thus, if rats are to be used to investigate the central aspects of the mammalian diving response, investigators should be aware that a rat forcibly submerged underwater may produce a response different from that of a voluntarily diving rat. 
The goal of this article is to provide detailed instructions on how to train rats to voluntarily dive underwater. These procedures are not technically difficult, but can be time-consuming. The training is conducted in such a way as to reduce the stressfulness that could otherwise be associated with forced underwater submergence. This voluntary diving technique should minimize activation of central stress pathways and thus better allow investigation of the central aspects of the diving response. By itself, training rats to voluntarily dive underwater generates no data that can be used to investigate the central aspects of the mammalian diving response. Therefore examples of how voluntarily diving rats have been used in conjunction with other physiological and neuroanatomical research techniques, and how the basic dive training may need to be modified to accommodate theses other techniques, are also provided.

<table><tbody><tr><td>McCulloch Diving Tank Maze</td><td>Stoelting Company</td><td>60139</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1 inch internal diameter tubing&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fisher</td><td>14-169-63</td><td>Used to fill or drain tank</td></tr><tr><td>Plexiglas rodent restraint device (Economy flat bottomed restrainer)</td><td>Braintree</td><td>FB-M/L&amp;nbsp;</td><td>For forced dives</td></tr><tr><td>Telemetric transmitters&amp;nbsp;</td><td>DSI</td><td>Model PA-C40 (270-0040-008)</td><td>Used to transmit pulsatile arterial blood pressure</td></tr><tr><td>Hand-held antenna wand</td><td>DSI</td><td>Model RLA 3000 (272-5007)</td><td>Used to ensure radio antenna is near to transmitter while rat is negotiating underwater maze</td></tr><tr><td>Intramedic PE50, 0.023&quot; ID</td><td>Fisher</td><td>14-170-12B</td><td>Used as trailing arterial cannula</td></tr><tr><td>N95 mask - Moldex #2300N Series</td><td>Fisher</td><td>19-003-246D</td><td>Used to limit inhalation of rat allergens</td></tr></tbody></table>

training rats to voluntarily dive underwater: investigations of the mammalian diving response

Underwater submergence produces autonomic changes that are observed in virtually all diving animals. This reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, a parasympathetically-induced bradycardia and a sympathetically-induced alteration of vascular resistance that maintains blood flow to the heart, brain and exercising muscles. While many of the metabolic and cardiorespiratory aspects of the diving response have been studied in marine animals, investigations of the central integrative aspects of this brainstem reflex have been relatively lacking. Because the physiology and neuroanatomy of the rat are well characterized, the rat can be used to help ascertain the central pathways of the mammalian diving response. Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to swim and voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Considerations regarding tank design and procedure room requirements are also given. The behavioral training is conducted in such a way as to reduce the stressfulness that could otherwise be associated with forced underwater submergence, thus minimizing activation of central stress pathways. The training procedures are not technically difficult, but they can be time-consuming. Since behavioral training of animals can only provide a model to be used with other experimental techniques, examples of how voluntarily diving rats have been used in conjunction with other physiological and neuroanatomical research techniques, and how the basic training procedures may need to be modified to accommodate these techniques, are also provided. These experiments show that voluntarily diving rats exhibit the same cardiorespiratory changes typically seen in other diving animals. The ease with which rats can be trained to voluntarily dive underwater, and the already available data from rats collected in other neurophysiological studies, makes voluntarily diving rats a good behavioral model to be used in studies investigating the central aspects of the mammalian diving response.

השלמה מוצלחת של נהלי הדרכה שחייה וצלילה המתוארים יכולה להקטין את הלחץ שחווה חולדות כאשר לצלול מתחת למים. רמות corticosterone הדם מצביעות על כך שאימון יומי חוזר מקטין את stressfulness הקשורים לצלילה מרצון, וחולדות מאומנות למצוא צלילה לא יותר מלחיץ מאשר בטיפול יומי על ידי אדם (?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Training Rats to Voluntarily Dive Underwater: Investigations of the Mammalian Diving Response at JoVE.com

Training Rats to Voluntarily Dive Underwater: Investigations of the Mammalian Diving Response

Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Because the brains of rats have been very well characterized, voluntarily diving rats may help elucidate the central pathways of the mammalian diving response.

חולדות הדרכה להתנדבות צלילה מתחת למים: חקירות של תגובת צליל היונקים

Underwater submergence produces autonomic changes that are observed in virtually all diving animals. This reflexly-induced response consists of apnea, a ...

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12.2K Views.  Midwestern University. Detailed instructions are provided on how to train rats to voluntarily dive underwater through a 5 m long Plexiglas maze. Because the brains of rats have been very well characterized, voluntarily diving rats may help elucidate the central pathways of the mammalian diving response.

Video: Training Rats to Voluntarily Dive Underwater: Investigations of the Mammalian Diving Response

Shallow Water (Paddling) Variants of Water Maze Tests in Mice

When Richard Morris devised his water maze in 19817, most behavioral work was done in rats. However, the greater understanding of mouse genetics led to the mouse becoming increasingly important. But researchers found that some strains of mutant mice were prone to problems like passively floating or diving when they were tested in the Morris water maze11. This was unsurprising considering their natural habitat; rats swim naturally (classically, the "sewer rat"), whereas mice evolved in the dry areas of central Asia.
To overcome these problems, it was considered whether shallow water would be a sufficient stimulus to provide escape motivation for mice. This would also avoid the problems of drying the small creatures with a towel and then putting them in a heated recovery chamber to avoid hypothermia, which is a much more serious problem than with rats; the large ratio of surface area to volume of a mouse makes it particularly vulnerable to rapid heat loss.
Another consideration was whether a more natural escape strategy could be used, to facilitate learning. Since animals that fall into water and swim away from the safety of the shore are unlikely to pass on their genes, animals have evolved a natural tendency to swim to the edge of a body of water. The Morris water maze, however, requires them to swim to a hidden platform towards the center of the maze - exactly opposite to their evolved behavior. Therefore the paddling maze should incorporate escape to the edge of the apparatus. This feature, coupled with the use of relatively non-aversive shallow water, embodies the "Refinement" aspect of the "3 Rs" of Russell and Burch8.
Various types of maze design were tried; the common feature was that the water was always shallow (2 cm deep) and escape was via a tube piercing the transparent wall of the apparatus. Other tubes ("false exits") were also placed around the walls but these were blocked off. From the inside of the maze all false exits and the single true exit looked the same. Currently a dodecagonal (12-sided) maze is in use in Oxford, with 12 true/false exits set in the corners. In a recent development a transparent paddling Y-maze has been tested successfully.

Shallow Water Paddling Variants of Water Maze Tests in Mice

Mice can swim, but many strains appear to find this activity stressful. To overcome this problem mazes have been devised where escape from shallow water is used to motivate behaviour. These have been demonstrated to support learning at least as good as the traditional and widely used Morris water maze.

מים רדודים (חתירה) נוסחים שונים של בדיקות מבוך מים בעכברים

When Richard Morris devised his water maze in 19817, most behavioral work was done in rats. However, the greater understanding of mouse genetics led to ...

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these processes is the ability to adjust behavior in response to changes in one&#8217;s environment (i.e., behavioral flexibility). These processes are essential to normal human behavior, and may be disrupted in diverse neuropsychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia, alcoholism, depression, stroke, and Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. Understanding of the neurobiology of executive functions has been greatly advanced by the availability of animal tasks for assessing discrete components of behavioral flexibility, particularly strategy shifting and reversal learning. While several types of tasks have been developed, most are non-automated, labor intensive, and allow testing of only one animal at a time. The recent development of automated, operant-based tasks for assessing behavioral flexibility streamlines testing, standardizes stimulus presentation and data recording, and dramatically improves throughput. Here, we describe automated strategy shifting and reversal tasks, using operant chambers controlled by custom written software programs. Using these tasks, we have shown that the medial prefrontal cortex governs strategy shifting but not reversal learning in the rat, similar to the dissociation observed in humans. Moreover, animals with a neonatal hippocampal lesion, a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia, are selectively impaired on the strategy shifting task but not the reversal task. The strategy shifting task also allows the identification of separate types of performance errors, each of which is attributable to distinct neural substrates. The availability of these automated tasks, and the evidence supporting the dissociable contributions of separate prefrontal areas, makes them particularly well-suited assays for the investigation of basic neurobiological processes as well as drug discovery and screening in disease models.

The ability to assess executive functions such as behavioral flexibility in rats is useful for investigating the neurobiology of cognition in both intact animals and disease models. Here we describe automated tasks for assessing strategy shifting and reversal learning, which are particularly sensitive to disruptions in prefrontal cortical networks.

נהלים אופרנטית להערכת גמישות התנהגותית בחולדות

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these ...

The Forced Swim Test as a Model of Depressive-like Behavior

The goal of the present protocol is to describe the forced swim test (FST), which is one of the most commonly used assays for the study of depressive-like behavior in rodents. The FST is based on the assumption that when placing an animal in a container filled with water, it will first make efforts to escape but eventually will exhibit immobility that may be considered to reflect a measure of behavioral despair. This test has been extensively used because it involves the exposure of the animals to stress, which was shown to have a role in the tendency for major depression. Additionally, the FST has been shown to share some of the factors that are influenced or altered by depression in humans, including changes in food consumption, sleep abnormalities and drug-withdrawal-induced anhedonia. The main advantages of this procedure are that it is relatively easy to perform and that its results are easily and quickly analyzed. Moreover, its sensitivity to a broad range of antidepressant drugs that makes it a suitable screening test is one of the most important features leading to its high predictive validity. Despite its appeal, this model has a number of disadvantages. First, the issue of chronic augmentation is problematic in this test because in real life patients need to be treated for at least several weeks before they experience any relief from their symptoms. Last, due to the aversiveness of the FST, it is important to take into account possible influences it might have on brain structure/function if brain analyses are to be carried out following this procedure.

This protocol describes the forced swim test, which is used for the study of depressive-like behavior in rodents. This procedure involves placing an animal in a container filled with water that eventually will lead to the exhibition of immobility behavior, which is considered to reflect behavioral despair.

המבחן לשחות בכפייה כמודל להתנהגות דמוית דיכאון

The goal of the present protocol is to describe the forced swim test (FST), which is one of the most commonly used assays for the study of depressive-like ...

A New Method for Inducing a Depression-Like Behavior in Rats

Contagious depression is a phenomenon that is yet to be fully recognized and this stems from insufficient material on the subject. At the moment, there is no existing format for studying the mechanism of action, prevention, containment, and treatment of contagious depression. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to establish the first animal model of contagious depression.
Healthy rats can contract depressive behaviors if exposed to depressed rats. Depression is induced in rats by subjecting them to several manipulations of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) over 5 weeks, as described in the protocol. A successful sucrose preference test confirmed the development of depression in the rats. The CUS-exposed rats were then caged with na&#239;ve rats from the contagion group (1 na&#239;ve rat/2 depressed rats in a cage) for an additional 5 weeks. 30 social groups were created from the combination of CUS-exposed rats and na&#239;ve rats.
This proposed depression-contagion protocol in animals consists mainly of cohabiting CUS-exposed and healthy rats for 5 weeks. To ensure that this method works, a series of tests are carried out - first, the sucrose preference test upon inducing depression to rats, then, the sucrose preference test, alongside the open field and forced-swim tests at the end of the cohabitation period. Throughout the experiment, rats are given tags and are always returned to their cages after each test.
A few limitations to this method are the weak differences recorded between the experimental and control groups in the sucrose preference test and the irreversible traumatic outcome of the forced swim test. These may be worth considering for suitability before any future application of the protocol. Nonetheless, following the experiment, na&#239;ve rats developed contagion depression after 5 weeks of sharing the same cage with the CUS-exposed rats.

This protocol describes a new model by which healthy rats could contract depression over a given time periodthrough contagion by exposure to chronic unpredictable stressed (CUS) rats.

שיטה חדשה עבור גרימת התנהגות כמו דיכאון אצל חולדות

Contagious depression is a phenomenon that is yet to be fully recognized and this stems from insufficient material on the subject. At the moment, there is ...

A Complex Diving-For-Food Task to Investigate Social Organization and Interactions in Rats

For many species, where status is a vital motivator that can affect health, social hierarchies influence behavior. Social hierarchies that include dominant-submissive relationships are common in both animal and human societies. These relationships can be affected by interactions with others and with their environment, making them difficult to analyze in a controlled study. Rather than a simple dominance hierarchy, this formation has a complicated presentation that allows rats to avoid aggression. Status can be stagnant or mutable, and results in complex societal stratifications. Here we describe a complex diving-for-food task to investigate rodent social hierarchy and behavioral interactions. This animal model may allow us to assess the relationship between a wide range of mental illnesses and social organization, as well as to study the effectiveness of therapy on social dysfunction.

This protocol describes a method of examining social hierarchy in a rat model. Rats perform a complex diving-for-food task in which they form a distinct hierarchy according to their willingness to dive underwater and swim to obtain a food pellet. This method is used to understand decision making and social relationships among highly social animals in small groups.

משימת צלילה למזון מורכבת לחקירת ארגון חברתי ואינטראקציות בחולדות

For many species, where status is a vital motivator that can affect health, social hierarchies influence behavior. Social hierarchies that include ...

<meta charset="utf8"></head><body>חקר פעילות גופנית אימהית לרווחת צאצאי חולדות

Swimming Exercise Protocol and Care Methods for Pregnant Rats

The developmental origins of health and disease concept highlights the impact of early environments on chronic non-communicable diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Studies using animal models have investigated how maternal factors such as undernutrition, overnutrition, obesity, and exposure to chemicals or hypoxia affect fetal development and offspring health, leading to issues like low birth weight, high blood pressure, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance. Given the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity among reproductive-age women, effective interventions are critical. Maternal exercise during pregnancy has emerged as a key intervention, benefiting both mother and offspring and reducing the risk of disease. This study compares the differences of three exercise models on pregnant rats: voluntary wheel running, motorized treadmills, and swimming. Swimming is the most beneficial option due to its safe and controlled intensity levels. This protocol details the rat breeding methods, swimming training during pregnancy, and post-breeding nursing protocols. This model, suitable for various rat and mouse species, is useful for studying the benefits of maternal exercise on offspring health and intergenerational wellness.

<meta charset="utf8"></head><body>מחבר זרקור: שיפור בריאות הצאצאים בחולדות עם פעילות גופנית אימהית במהלך ההריון

Here, we present a protocol to delineate rat breeding methods, swimming training procedures, and post-breeding nursing protocols for pregnant rats after training. This protocol provides an animal model for studying the effects of maternal exercise during pregnancy on offspring and its underlying mechanisms.

פרוטוקול התעמלות שחייה ושיטות טיפול בחולדות בהריון

The developmental origins of health and disease concept highlights the impact of early environments on chronic non-communicable diseases like diabetes, ...

Developmental Biology

אימות תגובה לפציעה והערכות התנהגותיות במודל של חולדות mTBI

Rat Model of Closed-Head Mild Traumatic Injury and its Validation

Animal models are crucial for advancing our understanding of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and guiding clinical research. To achieve meaningful insights, developing a stable and reproducible animal model is essential. In this study, we report a detailed description of a closed-head mTBI model and a representative validation method using Sprague-Dawley rats to verify the modeling effect. The model involves dropping a 550 g mass weight from a height of 100 cm directly onto the head of a rat on a destructible surface, followed by a 180-degree turn. To assess the injury, rats underwent a series of neurobehavioral assessments 10 min post-injury, including time of loss of consciousness, first seeking-behavior time, escape ability, and beam balance ability test. During the acute and subacute stages following the injury, behavioral tests were conducted to assess motor coordination ability (Beam task), anxiety (Open Field test), and learning and memory abilities (Morris Water Maze test). The closed-head mTBI model produced a consistent injury response with minimal mortality and replicated real-life situations. The validation method effectively verified the model development and ensured the stability and consistency of the model.

מחבר Spotlight: Advanceancing Traumatic Brain Injury Research - מודל ראש סגור לשכפול מדויק והערכה מהירה 

Here, we present a closed-head mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) rat model and its validation exhibiting remarkable similarity to human mTBI concerning behavioral manifestations during the acute and subacute stages.

מודל חולדה של פגיעה טראומטית קלה בראש סגור ותיקוף שלה

Animal models are crucial for advancing our understanding of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and guiding clinical research. To achieve meaningful ...

חולדות הדרכה להתנדבות צלילה מתחת למים: חקירות של תגובת צליל היונקים

Summary

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מים רדודים (חתירה) נוסחים שונים של בדיקות מבוך מים בעכברים

נהלים אופרנטית להערכת גמישות התנהגותית בחולדות

המבחן לשחות בכפייה כמודל להתנהגות דמוית דיכאון

שיטה חדשה עבור גרימת התנהגות כמו דיכאון אצל חולדות

משימת צלילה למזון מורכבת לחקירת ארגון חברתי ואינטראקציות בחולדות

פרוטוקול התעמלות שחייה ושיטות טיפול בחולדות בהריון

פרוטוקול התעמלות שחייה ושיטות טיפול בחולדות בהריון

פרוטוקול התעמלות שחייה ושיטות טיפול בחולדות בהריון

מודל חולדה של פגיעה טראומטית קלה בראש סגור ותיקוף שלה

מודל חולדה של פגיעה טראומטית קלה בראש סגור ותיקוף שלה