我々は彼らのサポートのために、次の感謝は次のとおりです。連邦奨学金委員会が英国の資金調達（HP）、EPSRC（HP）、BBSRC（MFN）と欧州連合（EU）マリー·キュリー·アクション（MFN）。

<ol>
	<li>O'Donnell, C., Nolan, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tuning+of+synaptic+responses:+an+organizing+principle+for+optimization+of+neural+circuits.">Tuning of synaptic responses: an organizing principle for optimization of neural circuits.</a> Trends Neurosci. 34, 51-60 (2011).</li><li>Garden, D. L. F., Dodson, P. D., O'Donnell, C., White, M. D., Nolan, M. 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A., Frans&#233;n, E., Hasselmo, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+frequency+of+subthreshold+oscillations+scales+with+entorhinal+grid+cell+field+spacing.">Temporal frequency of subthreshold oscillations scales with entorhinal grid cell field spacing.</a> Science. 315, 1719-1722 (2007).</li><li>Giocomo, L. M., Hasselmo, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time+constants+of+h+current+in+layer+II+stellate+cells+differ+along+the+dorsal+to+ventral+axis+of+medial+entorhinal+cortex.">Time constants of h current in layer II stellate cells differ along the dorsal to ventral axis of medial entorhinal cortex.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 28, 9414-9425 (2008).</li><li>Burgalossi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microcircuits+of+functionally+identified+neurons+in+the+rat+medial+entorhinal+cortex.">Microcircuits of functionally identified neurons in the rat medial entorhinal cortex.</a> Neuron. 70, 773-786 (2011).</li><li>Dodson, P. D., Pastoll, H., Nolan, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dorsal-ventral+organization+of+theta-like+activity+intrinsic+to+entorhinal+stellate+neurons+is+mediated+by+differences+in+stochastic+current+fluctuations.">Dorsal-ventral organization of theta-like activity intrinsic to entorhinal stellate neurons is mediated by differences in stochastic current fluctuations.</a> J. Physiol. (Lond). 589, 2993-3008 (2011).</li><li>Nolan, M., Dudman, J., Dodson, P., Santoro, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HCN1+channels+control+resting+and+active+integrative+properties+of+stellate+cells+from+layer+II+of+the+entorhinal+cortex.">HCN1 channels control resting and active integrative properties of stellate cells from layer II of the entorhinal cortex.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 27, (2007).</li><li>Boehlen, A., Heinemann, U., Erchova, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+range+of+intrinsic+frequencies+represented+by+medial+entorhinal+cortex+stellate+cells+extends+with+age.">The range of intrinsic frequencies represented by medial entorhinal cortex stellate cells extends with age.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 30, 4585-4589 (2010).</li><li>Klink, R., Alonso, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morphological+characteristics+of+layer+II+projection+neurons+in+the+rat+medial+entorhinal+cortex.">Morphological characteristics of layer II projection neurons in the rat medial entorhinal cortex.</a> Hippocampus. 7, 571-583 (1997).</li><li>van Groen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Entorhinal+cortex+of+the+mouse:+cytoarchitectonical+organization.">Entorhinal cortex of the mouse: cytoarchitectonical organization.</a> Hippocampus. 11, 397-407 (2001).</li><li>Dolorfo, C. 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開示するものがありません。

我々はここで詳細にMECの背腹軸の範囲を維持する矢状スライス標本を製造するための手順を記載している背腹組織に従うMEC回路特性の調査を容易にする。 重要なステップ 動物から脳を削除します 。脳に作用する圧力を避けるために、特に注意してください。これは、脳の急速な除去よりも重要である。 スライ?...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td></td><td> ACSF（mm）を切断 </td><td> 標準ACSF（MM） </td><td> 内部液（mM）を </td><td> CASNumber </td><td> サプライヤのカタログ番号 </td></tr><tr><td> NaClを</td><td> 86 </td><td> 124 </td><td></td><td> 7647-14-5 </td><td>シグマS9888 </td></tr><tr><td>のNaH 2 PO 4 </td><td> 1.2 </td><td> 1.2 </td><td></td><td> 13472-35-0 </td><td>シグマ71505 </td></tr><tr><td>塩化カリウム</td><td> 2.5 </td><td> 2.5 </td><td> 10 </td><td> 7447-40-7 </td><td>シグマP3911 </td></tr><tr><td> NaHCO 3を </td><td> 25 </td><td> 25 </td><td></td><td> 144-55-8 </td><td>フィッシャーS/4240 </td></tr><tr><td>グルコース</td><td> 25 </td><td> 20 </td><td></td><td> 50-99-7 </td><td>シグマG5767 </td></tr><tr><td>スクロース</td><td> 75 </td><td></td><td></td><td> 57-50-1 </td><td>シグマS5016 </td></tr><tr><td> CACl 2の </td><td> 0.5 </td><td> 2 </td><td></td><td> 10043-52-4 </td><td> VWR 190464K </td></tr><tr><td> MgCl 2を </td><td> 7 </td><td> 1 </td><td> 2 </td><td> 7786-30-3 </td><td>シグマ63020 </td></tr><tr><td> Kグルコン酸</td><td></td><td></td><td> 130 </td><td> 299-27-4 </td><td>シグマG4500 </td></tr><tr><td> HEPES </td><td></td><td></td><td> 10 </td><td> 7365-45-9 </td><td>シグマH3375 </td></tr><tr><td> EGTA </td><td></td><td></td><td> 0.1 </td><td> 67-42-5 </td><td>シグマE4378 </td></tr><tr><td>のNa 2 ATP </td><td></td><td></td><td> 2 </td><td> 34369-07-8 </td><td>シグマA7699 </td></tr><tr><td>のNa 2 GTP </td><td></td><td></td><td> 0.3 </td><td> 36051-31-7 </td><td>シグマG8877 </td></tr><tr><td> NaPhospho-クレアチン</td><td></td><td></td><td> 10 </td><td> 19333-65-4 </td><td>シグマP7936 </td></tr><tr><td>ビオシチン（オプション） </td><td></td><td></td><td> 2.7 </td><td> 576-19-2 </td><td&gt;シグマB4261 </td></tr></tbody></table> 表1。切削ACSF、標準ACSFとK-グルコン内部ソリューションのレシピ。

preparation of parasagittal slices for the investigation of dorsal-ventral organization of the rodent medial entorhinal cortex

脳内の計算は、シナプス入力に適切に応答ニューロンに依存しています。ニューロンは、それらの補数、彼らはシナプス入力に応答する方法を決定する膜のイオンチャネルの分布が異なります。しかし、動物の動作でこれらの細胞の特性と神経機能の関係はよく理解されていません。この問題に対する一つのアプローチは、それらがコード情報、または計算上の個々のニューロンのマップの位置は、彼らが1を実施している地形的に編成神経回路を検討することである。このアプローチを用いた実験は、感覚や認知回路2,3内の情報の符号化の基礎となるシナプス応答のチューニングのための原則を示唆している。 内側嗅内皮質（MEC）の背腹軸に沿って空間的な表現の地形組織は、細胞のメカニズムと計算の間の関係を確立する機会を提供していますI空間認知のためにmportant。げっ歯類のMECのレイヤーIIのニューロンは、格子状のフィールド4-6焼成を使用して場所をエンコードします。次第に腹の位置でニューロンは、この距離より大きい1メートルに増加し、一方MECの背側の位置で見つかった神経細胞のグリッドを形成する個々の焼成のフィールドの間の距離は、30cmのオーダーである。いくつかの研究は、これらの細胞の特性は、空間計算2,7-10に重要であることが示唆され、グリッド発射フィールド間の間隔と同様、彼らの背腹の位置に応じて異なることMECのレイヤーIIのニューロンの細胞の性質を明らかにした。 ここでは、MECニューロンの生物物理学と解剖学的特性の地形組織のMEC可能にする調査の背腹軸の範囲を維持する脳スライスからの調製および電気生理学的記録のための手順について説明します。識別さnの背腹軸の位置それは、スライスの正確な背腹の位置の基準点を確立することは困難であるとして、解剖学的ランドマークの相対euronsは、MEC 7,8,11,12の水平スライスを使用するプロトコルを正確に確立することは困難である。我々は記述の手順では、MECと同様に、分子勾配2,10の可視化の背腹軸に沿って記録された細胞の位置を正確かつ一貫性のある測定を可能にします。手順は、成体マウスで使用するために開発されている（&gt; 28日間）に成功し、最大1.5歳までのマウスで採用されている。調整に彼らは若いマウスまたは他の齧歯類の種と一緒に使用することができます。調製と測定の標準化されたシステムは、この領域の細胞とマイクロ回路の特性の体系的な調査を支援します。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Parasagittal Slices for the Investigation of Dorsal-ventral Organization of the Rodent Medial Entorhinal Cortex at JoVE.com

Preparation of Parasagittal Slices for the Investigation of Dorsal-ventral Organization of the Rodent Medial Entorhinal Cortex

我々は内側嗅内皮質（MEC）の背腹軸を維持する脳スライスからの調製および電気生理学的記録のための手順について説明します。場所の神経エンコーディングはMEC内の背腹軸の組織を次のようなので、これらの手順は、ナビゲーションやメモリのための重要な細胞メカニズムの調査を容易にします。

げっ歯類の内側嗅内皮質の背腹軸機構の調査のための矢状スライスの作成

Computation in the brain relies on neurons responding appropriately to their synaptic inputs. Neurons differ in their complement and distribution of ...

preparation-parasagittal-slices-for-investigation-dorsal-ventral

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.5K ビュー.  University of Edinburgh. 我々は内側嗅内皮質（MEC）の背腹軸を維持する脳スライスからの調製および電気生理学的記録のための手順について説明します。場所の神経エンコーディングはMEC内の背腹軸の組織を次のようなので、これらの手順は、ナビゲーションやメモリのための重要な細胞メカニズムの調査を容易にします。

ビデオ: Preparation of Parasagittal Slices for the Investigation of Dorsal-ventral Organization of the Rodent Medial Entorhinal Cortex

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Neural Correlates of Emotion Regulation

The ability to control/regulate emotions is an important coping mechanism in the face of emotionally stressful situations. Although significant progress has been made in understanding conscious/deliberate emotion regulation (ER), less is known about non-conscious/automatic ER and the associated neural correlates. This is in part due to the problems inherent in the unitary concepts of automatic and conscious processing1. Here, we present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of both deliberate and automatic ER using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This protocol allows new avenues of inquiry into various aspects of ER. For instance, the experimental design allows manipulation of the goal to regulate emotion (conscious vs. non-conscious), as well as the intensity of the emotional challenge (high vs. low). Moreover, it allows investigation of both immediate (emotion perception) and long-term effects (emotional memory) of ER strategies on emotion processing. Therefore, this protocol may contribute to better understanding of the neural mechanisms of emotion regulation in healthy behaviour, and to gaining insight into possible causes of deficits in depression and anxiety disorders in which emotion dysregulation is often among the core debilitating features.

We present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of deliberate and automatic emotion regulation, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. This protocol can be used in healthy participants, both young and older, as well as in clinical patients.

情動表出の制御の神経相関の脳イメージング研究

The ability to control/regulate emotions is an important coping mechanism in the face of emotionally stressful situations. Although significant progress ...

神経科学

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Memory-Enhancing Effect of Emotion

Emotional events tend to be better remembered than non-emotional events1,2. One goal of cognitive and affective neuroscientists is 
to understand the neural mechanisms underlying this enhancing effect of emotion on memory. A method that has proven particularly influential in the 
investigation of the memory-enhancing effect of emotion is the so-called subsequent memory paradigm (SMP). This method was originally used to investigate the 
neural correlates of non-emotional memories3, and more recently we and others also applied it successfully to studies of emotional memory (reviewed in4, 5-7). 
Here, we describe a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of the memory-enhancing effect of emotion using the SMP in conjunction with 
event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An important feature of the SMP is that it allows separation of brain activity specifically 
associated with memory from more general activity associated with perception. Moreover, in the context of investigating the impact of emotional stimuli, 
SMP allows identification of brain regions whose activity is susceptible to emotional modulation of both general/perceptual and memory-specific processing. 
This protocol can be used in healthy subjects8-15, as well as in clinical patients where there are alterations in the neural correlates of emotion perception 
and biases in remembering emotional events, such as those suffering from depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)16, 17.

We present a protocol that uses functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the neural correlates of the memory-enhancing effect of emotion. This protocol allows identification of brain activity specifically linked to memory-related processing, contrary to more general perceptual processing, and can be used with healthy and clinical populations.

感情の記憶増強効果の脳イメージング研究

Emotional events tend to be better remembered than non-emotional events1,2. One goal of cognitive and affective neuroscientists is 
to understand the ...

Brain Imaging Investigation of the Impairing Effect of Emotion on Cognition

Emotions can impact cognition by exerting both enhancing (e.g., better memory for emotional events) and impairing (e.g., increased emotional distractibility) effects (reviewed in 1). Complementing our recent protocol 2 describing a method that allows investigation of the neural correlates of the memory-enhancing effect of emotion (see also 1, 3-5), here we present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural correlates of the detrimental impact of emotion on cognition. The main feature of this method is that it allows identification of reciprocal modulations between activity in a ventral neural system, involved in 'hot' emotion processing (HotEmo system), and a dorsal system, involved in higher-level 'cold' cognitive/executive processing (ColdEx system), which are linked to cognitive performance and to individual variations in behavior (reviewed in 1). Since its initial introduction 6, this design has proven particularly versatile and influential in the elucidation of various aspects concerning the neural correlates of the detrimental impact of emotional distraction on cognition, with a focus on working memory (WM), and of coping with such distraction 7,11, in both healthy 8-11 and clinical participants 12-14.

We present a protocol that allows investigation of the neural mechanisms mediating the detrimental impact of emotion on cognition, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. This protocol can be used with both healthy and clinical participants.

認知に関する情動の損なう効果の脳イメージング研究

Emotions can impact cognition by exerting both enhancing (e.g., better memory for emotional events) and impairing (e.g., increased emotional ...

Simultaneous Electroencephalography, Real-time Measurement of Lactate Concentration and Optogenetic Manipulation of Neuronal Activity in the Rodent Cerebral Cortex

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body at rest1. The function of non rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS), the largest portion of sleep by time, is uncertain. However, one salient feature of NREMS is a significant reduction in the rate of cerebral glucose utilization relative to wakefulness2-4. This and other findings have led to the widely held belief that sleep serves a function related to cerebral metabolism. Yet, the mechanisms underlying the reduction in cerebral glucose metabolism during NREMS remain to be elucidated.
	One phenomenon associated with NREMS that might impact cerebral metabolic rate is the occurrence of slow waves, oscillations at frequencies less than 4 Hz, in the electroencephalogram5,6. These slow waves detected at the level of the skull or cerebral cortical surface reflect the oscillations of underlying neurons between a depolarized/up state and a hyperpolarized/down state7. During the down state, cells do not undergo action potentials for intervals of up to several hundred milliseconds. Restoration of ionic concentration gradients subsequent to action potentials represents a significant metabolic load on the cell8; absence of action potentials during down states associated with NREMS may contribute to reduced metabolism relative to wake.
	Two technical challenges had to be addressed in order for this hypothetical relationship to be tested. First, it was necessary to measure cerebral glycolytic metabolism with a temporal resolution reflective of the dynamics of the cerebral EEG (that is, over seconds rather than minutes). To do so, we measured the concentration of lactate, the product of aerobic glycolysis, and therefore a readout of the rate of glucose metabolism in the brains of mice. Lactate was measured using a lactate oxidase based real time sensor embedded in the frontal cortex. The sensing mechanism consists of a platinum-iridium electrode surrounded by a layer of lactate oxidase molecules. Metabolism of lactate by lactate oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide, which produces a current in the platinum-iridium electrode. So a ramping up of cerebral glycolysis provides an increase in the concentration of substrate for lactate oxidase, which then is reflected in increased current at the sensing electrode. It was additionally necessary to measure these variables while manipulating the excitability of the cerebral cortex, in order to isolate this variable from other facets of NREMS.
	We devised an experimental system for simultaneous measurement of neuronal activity via the elecetroencephalogram, measurement of glycolytic flux via a lactate biosensor, and manipulation of cerebral cortical neuronal activity via optogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons. We have utilized this system to document the relationship between sleep-related electroencephalographic waveforms and the moment-to-moment dynamics of lactate concentration in the cerebral cortex. The protocol may be useful for any individual interested in studying, in freely behaving rodents, the relationship between neuronal activity measured at the electroencephalographic level and cellular energetics within the brain.

A procedure is described for manipulating the activity of cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons optogenetically while the electroencephalogram, electromyogram, and cerebral lactate concentration are monitored. Experimental recordings are performed on cable-tethered mice while they undergo spontaneous sleep/wake cycles. Optogenetic equipment is assembled in our laboratory; recording equipment is commercially available.

同時脳波、リアルタイム乳酸濃度の測定と齧歯類大脳皮質ニューロン活動のOptogeneticマニピュレーション

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body  by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body  at rest1. The ...

A Comprehensive Protocol for Manual Segmentation of the Medial Temporal Lobe Structures

The present paper describes a comprehensive protocol for manual tracing of the set of brain regions comprising the medial temporal lobe (MTL): amygdala, hippocampus, and the associated parahippocampal regions (perirhinal, entorhinal,&#160;and parahippocampal proper). Unlike most other tracing protocols available, typically focusing on certain MTL areas (e.g., amygdala and/or hippocampus), the integrative perspective adopted by the present tracing guidelines allows for clear localization of all MTL subregions. By integrating information from a variety of sources, including extant tracing protocols separately targeting various MTL structures, histological reports, and brain atlases, and with the complement of illustrative visual materials, the present protocol provides an accurate, intuitive, and convenient guide for understanding the MTL anatomy. The need for such tracing guidelines is also emphasized by illustrating possible differences between automatic and manual segmentation protocols. This knowledge can be applied toward research involving not only structural MRI investigations but also structural-functional colocalization and fMRI signal extraction from anatomically defined ROIs, in healthy and clinical groups alike.

The present work provides a comprehensive set of guidelines for manually tracing the medial temporal lobe (MTL) structures. This protocol can be applied to research involving structural and/or combined structural-functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) investigations of the MTL, in both healthy and clinical groups.

内側側頭葉構造の手動分割のための総合的なプロトコル

The present paper describes a comprehensive protocol for manual tracing of the set of brain regions comprising the medial temporal lobe (MTL): amygdala, ...

Preparation of Acute Brain Slices Using an Optimized N-Methyl-D-glucamine Protective Recovery Method

This protocol is a practical guide to the N-methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG) protective recovery method of brain slice preparation. Numerous recent studies have validated the utility of this method for enhancing neuronal preservation and overall brain slice viability. The implementation of this technique by early adopters has facilitated detailed investigations into brain function using diverse experimental applications and spanning a wide range of animal ages, brain regions, and cell types. Steps are outlined for carrying out the protective recovery brain slice technique using an optimized NMDG artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF) media formulation and enhanced procedure to reliably obtain healthy brain slices for patch clamp electrophysiology. With this updated approach, a substantial improvement is observed in the speed and reliability of gigaohm seal formation during targeted patch clamp recording experiments while maintaining excellent neuronal preservation, thereby facilitating challenging experimental applications. Representative results are provided from multi-neuron patch clamp recording experiments to assay synaptic connectivity in neocortical brain slices prepared from young adult transgenic mice and mature adult human neurosurgical specimens. Furthermore, the optimized NMDG protective recovery method of brain slicing is compatible with both juvenile and adult animals, thus resolving a limitation of the original methodology. In summary, a single media formulation and brain slicing procedure can be implemented across various species and ages to achieve excellent viability and tissue preservation.

Preparation of Acute Brain Slices Using an Optimized N-Methyl-D-glucamine Protective Recovery Method

This protocol demonstrates the implementation of an optimized N-methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG) protective recovery method of brain slice preparation. A single media formulation is used to reliably obtain healthy brain slices from animals of any age and for diverse experimental applications.

最適化されたNを使用して急性脳スライスの準備-メチル-D-glucamine 保護回復法

This protocol is a practical guide to the N-methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG) protective recovery method of brain slice preparation. Numerous recent studies have ...

The Preparation of Oblique Spinal Cord Slices for Ventral Root Stimulation

Electrophysiological recordings from spinal cord slices have proven to be a valuable technique to investigate a wide range of questions, from cellular to network properties. We show how to prepare viable oblique slices of the spinal cord of young mice (P2 - P11). In this preparation, the motoneurons retain&#160;their axons coming out from the ventral roots of the&#160;spinal cord. Stimulation of these axons elicits back-propagating action potentials invading the motoneuron&#160;somas and exciting the motoneuron&#160;collaterals within the spinal cord. Recording of antidromic action potentials is an immediate, definitive and elegant way to characterize motoneuron identity, which surpasses&#160;other identification methods. Furthermore, stimulating the motoneuron collaterals is a simple and reliable way to excite the collateral targets of the motoneurons within the spinal cord, such as other motoneurons or Renshaw cells. In this protocol, we present antidromic recordings from the motoneuron somas as well as Renshaw cell excitation, resulting from ventral root stimulation.

We show how to prepare oblique slices of the spinal cord in young mice. This preparation allows for the stimulation of the ventral roots.

前根刺激のための斜め脊髄スライスの調製

Electrophysiological recordings from spinal cord slices have proven to be a valuable technique to investigate a wide range of questions, from cellular to ...

Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific frequency and in turn modulate ongoing cortical oscillatory activity. This neurotool allows the establishment of a causal link between endogenous oscillatory activity and behavior. Most of the tACS studies have shown online effects of tACS. However, little is known about the underlying action mechanisms of this technique because of the AC-induced artifacts on Electroencephalography (EEG) signals. Here we show a unique approach to investigate online physiological frequency-specific effects of tACS of the primary motor cortex (M1) by using single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to probe cortical excitability changes. In our setup, the TMS coil is placed over the tACS electrode while Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) are collected to test the effects of the ongoing M1-tACS. So far, this approach has mainly been used to study the visual and motor systems. However, the current tACS-TMS setup can pave the way for future investigations of cognitive functions. Therefore, we provide a step-by-step manual and video guidelines for the procedure.

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) allows the modulation of cortical excitability in a frequency-specific fashion. Here we show a unique approach which combines online tACS with single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in order to "probe" cortical excitability by means of Motor Evoked Potentials.

経頭蓋交流電流刺激オンライン結合による一次運動野の経頭蓋磁気刺激の効果

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific ...

Evaluation of Synapse Density in Hippocampal Rodent Brain Slices

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is tightly regulated during development and neuronal maturation. Importantly, deficits in synapse number can lead to cognitive dysfunction. Therefore, the evaluation of synapse number is an integral part of neurobiology. However, as synapses are small and highly compact in the intact brain, the assessment of absolute number is challenging. This protocol describes a method to easily identify and evaluate synapses in hippocampal rodent slices using immunofluorescence microscopy. It includes a three-step procedure to evaluate synapses in high-quality confocal microscopy images by analyzing the co-localization of pre- and postsynaptic proteins in hippocampal slices. It also explains how the analysis is performed and gives representative examples from both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. This protocol provides a solid foundation for the analysis of synapses and can be applied to any research investigating the structure and function of the brain.

A protocol for accurately identifying and analyzing synapses in hippocampal slices using immunofluorescence is outlined in this article.

海馬の齧歯動物の脳スライスにおけるシナプス密度の評価

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is ...

Preparation of Rhythmically-active In Vitro Neonatal Rodent Brainstem-spinal Cord and Thin Slice

Mammalian inspiratory rhythm is generated from a neuronal network in a region of the medulla called the preB&#246;tzinger complex (pBC), which produces a signal driving the rhythmic contraction of inspiratory muscles. Rhythmic neural activity generated in the pBC and carried to other neuronal pools to drive the musculature of breathing may be studied using various approaches, including en bloc nerve recordings and transverse slice recordings. However, previously published methods have not extensively described the brainstem-spinal cord dissection process in a transparent and reproducible manner for future studies. Here, we present a comprehensive overview of a method used to reproducibly cut rhythmically-active brainstem slices containing the necessary and sufficient neuronal circuitry for generating and transmitting inspiratory drive. This work builds upon previous brainstem-spinal cord electrophysiology protocols to enhance the likelihood of reliably obtaining viable and rhythmically-active slices for recording neuronal output from the pBC, hypoglossal premotor neurons (XII pMN), and hypoglossal motor neurons (XII MN). The work presented expands upon previous published methods by providing detailed, step-by-step illustrations of the dissection, from whole rat pup, to in vitro slice containing the XII rootlets.

This protocol both visually communicates the brainstem-spinal cord preparation and clarifies the preparation of brainstem transverse slices in a comprehensive step-by-step manner. It was designed to increase reproducibility and enhance the likelihood of obtaining viable, long lasting, rhythmically-active slices for recording neural output from the respiratory regions of the brainstem.

リズミカルにアクティブな準備体外新生児齧歯動物脳幹-脊髄損傷で薄くスライス

Mammalian inspiratory rhythm is generated from a neuronal network in a region of the medulla called the preB&#246;tzinger complex (pBC), which produces a ...