This research was supported by a grant from the NSERC Discovery program grant number RGPIN 418522-2013. We thank R. Kilgour for helpful discussions, and Katelin Gresty and Dr. A. Berghdal for providing the mouse muscle sections.

Research with human blood samples was approved by Concordia University Ethics Review Board, certificate number 10000618. The work on mouse muscle was approved by Concordia University Ethics Review Board, certificate number 2010BERG.
1. PBMC Isolation from Whole Blood
NOTE: Carry out this procedure in a biosafety cabinet using sterile technique and manufacturer-sterilized equipment.
<ol>
	<li>Carefully pour 10-15 ml of whole blood from the heparinized (anti-coagulant) blood collection tubes into a 50 ml sterile conical tube. For minor blood spills, wipe with ddH2O and 70% EtOH using cleaning tissue.</li>
	<li>Dilute the blood in the conical tube to a 1:1 ratio with Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS 1x) pH 7.4. Ensure that the maximum total volume does not exceed 30 ml.</li>
	<li>Mix gently using a serological pipette gun avoiding bubbles. 
	NOTE: Do NOT mix by inverting the tube to avoid blood accumulation in the cap and subsequent seepage during centrifugation.</li>
	<li>Add 13 ml of Ficoll-paque&#160;(see Materials and Equipment table), to a new 50 ml capacity conical tube. Keep the tube upright in the rack.</li>
	<li>Using a transfer pipette, take diluted blood, touch the transfer pipette tip to the inside wall of the tube near the top. With slow and steady pressure, transfer the blood along the inside wall of the tube forming a blood layer on top of the sucrose layer. Do this step several times until all blood has been transferred.</li>
	<li>Cap the tube tightly and centrifuge the tube at room temperature for 30 min at 700 x g in a swing rotor with medium acceleration set to 5, and deceleration set to ZERO.</li>
	<li>Slowly take out the tube and without disturbing the layers, take it back to the biosafety cabinet.</li>
	<li>Carefully collect the buffy coat (thin cloudy white layer), where PBMCs are located, placed between the PBS/plasma and ficoll layers using a transfer pipette. Avoid collecting sucrose layer and do not disturb the red blood cell layer.</li>
	<li>Transfer the buffy coat into a new 50 ml sterile conical tube. It may take several times of repeating step 1.8 to collect all the PBMC.</li>
	<li>Add PBS pH 7.4 to the tube with the PBMC and fill up to the 45 ml mark. Shake tube thoroughly. Do not vortex.</li>
	<li>Wash 1: Centrifuge for 15 min at 480 x g with both maximum acceleration and deceleration set to 9. Observe formation of a pellet of PBMCs at the bottom of the conical tube.</li>
	<li>Discard the PBS (supernatant) into a plastic beaker with 10 ml of bleach.</li>
	<li>Loosen cell pellet by gently &#8220;racking&#8221; against an undulated surface (i.e., empty rack). Do not vortex.</li>
	<li>Add 25 ml of fresh PBS pH 7.4 to the tube. If more than one tube is being processed, pool the pellets together in this step.</li>
	<li>Wash 2: Centrifuge the tube for 12 min at 480 x g with both maximum acceleration and deceleration set to 9.</li>
	<li>Discard the PBS (supernatant) into the plastic beaker with a splash of bleach.</li>
	<li>Gently &#8220;rack&#8221; against an undulated surface (i.e., empty rack). Do not vortex.</li>
	<li>Add 25 ml of fresh PBS to the tube.
	<ol>
		<li>Take out 50 &#181;l of the cells and transfer into a microcentrifuge tube for viability count.</li>
		<li>Add an equal amount (50 &#181;l) of trypan blue (a viability stain) and pipette up and down to mix gently.&#160;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Take out 10 &#181;l and transfer it to a hemocytometer to check the viability of cells per ml. Record the number of cells/ml.</li>
	<li>Take out the desired amount of cells and centrifuge the tube for 12 min at 480 x g with both maximum acceleration and deceleration set to 9.</li>
	<li>Discard the PBS (supernatant) into the beaker with bleach.</li>
	<li>Gently &#8220;rack&#8221; against an undulated surface (i.e., empty rack). Add 80 &#181;l of PBS into the tube.</li>
</ol>
2. Making the PBMC Slide
<ol>
	<li>Place 80 &#181;l of the cells onto a microscope slide. Smear the drop with the help of another slide or place 2 drops of 40 &#181;l each on both ends of the slide.</li>
	<li>Leave slide in the biological safety cabinet to dry. Label the slide with a pencil on the frosted side.</li>
</ol>
3. Fixing the Samples on the Slides
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the fixative solution by mixing 0.5 ml of 37% formaldehyde to 4.5 ml of 99% ethanol.</li>
	<li>After the slides are dried, take out 2 ml of the freshly made fixative solution and pour it on the slide so that the entire surface of the slide is covered.</li>
	<li>Leave the solution on the slide for 1 min. Rinse the slide for 1 min with tap water and leave it to air dry.</li>
</ol>
4. Making the Amylase Solution for Negative Control
<ol>
	<li>Take 0.25 g of amylase powder and dissolve in 50 ml of distilled water. Pour the solution in a clean 100 ml beaker.</li>
	<li>Immerse the slide in the beaker so that half of the slide receives the treatment and the other half remains untreated and then incubate for 15 min at room temperature (Figure 1C).</li>
	<li>Make a note on which side of the slide is receiving the amylase treatment. Draw a line on the back of the slide indicating the border between the treatment and control.</li>
	<li>Wash the slides with ddH2O to remove the amylase solution and leave the slide to air dry.</li>
</ol>
5. Perform Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) Staining and Imaging
NOTE: PAS reagents are toxic by inhalation and are corrosive, so the steps need to be done in a chemical fume hood, and the waste products must be properly disposed of according to institutional guidelines.
<ol>
	<li>Place the slide on a flat surface and pour 1.50-2.00 ml of Periodic Acid Solution on the sample. Incubate for 5 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Rinse the slides in several charges of distilled water.</li>
	<li>Pour 1.50-2.00 ml of Schiff&#8217;s reagent on the slide and incubate it at room temperature for 15 min.</li>
	<li>Wash the slide with distilled water for 5 min and leave it to air dry.</li>
	<li>Apply 10 &#181;l mounting media on the slide and cover with two small coverslips, or apply 50 &#181;l and use one large coverslip.</li>
	<li>Apply clear nail polish on the edges of the coverslip, let dry overnight.</li>
</ol>
6. Obtain Images with the Binocular Light Microscope Using the 100X Objective

<ol>
	<li>Rich, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+molecular+machinery+of+keilin's+respiratory+chain.">The molecular machinery of keilin's respiratory chain.</a> Biochem. Soc. Trans. 31 (Pt 6), 1095-1105 (2003).</li><li>Peter, J. B., Barnard, R. J., Edgerton, V. R., Gillespie, C. A., Stempel, K. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+profiles+of+three+fiber+types+of+skeletal+muscle+in+guinea+pigs+and+rabbits).">Metabolic profiles of three fiber types of skeletal muscle in guinea pigs and rabbits).</a> Biochemistry. 11 (14), 2627-2633 (1972).</li><li>Jones, R. V., Goffi, G. P., Hutt, M. S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lymphocyte+glycogen+content+in+various+disease.">Lymphocyte glycogen content in various disease.</a> J. Clin. Pathol. 15 (1), 36-39 (1962).</li><li>Scott, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+in+human+peripheral+blood+leukocytes.+I.+characteristics+of+the+synthesis+and+turnover+of+glycogen+in+vitro.">Glycogen in human peripheral blood leukocytes. I. characteristics of the synthesis and turnover of glycogen in vitro.</a> J. Clin. Invest. 47 (2), 344-352 (1968).</li><li>Fedele, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=positive+index+of+lymphocytes+and+metabolic+control+in+insulin-treated+and+type+II+diabetes+mellitus.">positive index of lymphocytes and metabolic control in insulin-treated and type II diabetes mellitus.</a> Diabete Metab. 9 (3), 188-192 (1983).</li><li>Breli&#324;ska-Peczalska, R., Mackiewicz, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytochemical+studies+of+peripheral+blood+granulocytes+and+lymphocytes+in+patients+with+systemic+lupus+erythematosus.">Cytochemical studies of peripheral blood granulocytes and lymphocytes in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.</a> Pol.Med.Sci.Hist.Bull. 15 (2), 231-234 (1976).</li><li>Yunis, A. A., Arimura, G. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzymes+of+glycogen+metabolism+in+white+blood+cells.+I.+glycogen+phosphorylase+in+normal+and+leukemic+human+leukocytes.">Enzymes of glycogen metabolism in white blood cells. I. glycogen phosphorylase in normal and leukemic human leukocytes.</a> Cancer, Res. 24, 489-492 (1964).</li><li>Hagemans, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PAS-positive+lymphocyte+vacuoles+can+be+used+as+diagnostic+screening+test+for+pompe+disease.">PAS-positive lymphocyte vacuoles can be used as diagnostic screening test for pompe disease.</a> J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 33 (2), 133-139 (2010).</li><li>Totsuka, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physical+performance+and+soleus+muscle+fiber+composition+in+wild-derived+and+laboratory+inbred+mouse+strains.">Physical performance and soleus muscle fiber composition in wild-derived and laboratory inbred mouse strains.</a> 95 (2), 720-727 (2003).</li><li>Murat, J. C., Serfaty, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple+enzymatic+determination+of+polysaccharide+(glycogen)+content+of+animal+tissues.">Simple enzymatic determination of polysaccharide (glycogen) content of animal tissues.</a> Clin. Chem. 20 (12), 1576-1577 (1974).</li><li>Arrizabalaga, O., Lacerda, H. M., Zubiaga, A. M., Zugaza, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rac1+protein+regulates+glycogen+phosphorylase+activation+and+controls+interleukin+(IL)-2-dependent+T+cell+proliferation.">Rac1 protein regulates glycogen phosphorylase activation and controls interleukin (IL)-2-dependent T cell proliferation.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 287 (15), 11878-11890 (2012).</li><li>Pelletier, J., G, J., Mazure, N. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biochemical+titration+of+glycogen+in+vitro.">Biochemical titration of glycogen in vitro.</a> J.Vis.Exp. (81), (2013).</li><li>Roach, P. J., Depaoli-Roach, A. A., Hurley, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tagliabracci+V.S.+Glycogen+and+its+metabolism:+Some+new+developments+and+old+themes.">Tagliabracci V.S. Glycogen and its metabolism: Some new developments and old themes.</a> Biochem.J. 441 (3), 763-787 (2012).</li><li>Salmoral, E. M., Tolmasky, D. S., Krisman, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+the+presence+of+glycogen+in+rat+thymus.">Evidence for the presence of glycogen in rat thymus.</a> Cell Mol.Biol. 36 (2), 163-174 (1990).</li><li>Darlington, P. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diminished+Th17+(not+Th1)+responses+underlie+multiple+sclerosis+disease+abrogation+after+hematopoietic+stem+cell+transplantation.">Diminished Th17 (not Th1) responses underlie multiple sclerosis disease abrogation after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.</a> Ann.Neurol. 73 (3), 341-354 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The critical steps of this video article were during washing and amylase treatment of the cells. While washing the slides, the key step was using a plastic squeezable washing bottle and letting the water gently run through the sample on the slide and not aiming directly onto the samples. Even the slightest direct water pressure would cause the cells to come off the slide. Another key step was to use the same slide for &#177; amylase conditions. After the PBMCs were adhered to the slide, the slide was carefully placed int...

Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) staining is an immunohistochemical technique that is widely used in muscle research and diagnostics. It is also utilized as a diagnostic tool on blood samples. The technique works by applying periodic acid solution to the sample, which oxidizes units within the polysaccharide creating aldehyde groups that react with the colourless Schiff&#39;s reagent thereby producing a deep magenta product. The steps of this procedure are shown in Figure 1. The stain turns anything with polysaccharides magenta, including glycogen, glycoproteins, glycolipids, mucins, or other molecules with polysaccharide moieties.
PAS staining is often used to measure glycogen levels in muscle fibers. Muscles tissue sections are ideal for the technique as they firmly attach to the slide and withstand multiple washing and staining steps. Glycogen is most present in fast twitch Type II muscle fibers, which have a high demand for rapid ATP production requiring glycogen for maximum performance1,2. Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose that can be broken into free glucose through the action of glycogen phosphorylase enzymes. In times of rest and nutritional-sufficiency, glycogen is replenished through the process of glycogenesis, while in times of nutritional insufficiency or high-energy demand; glycogen is broken down into glucose by glycogenolysis. From as early as the 1950&#39;s clinician scientists have explored PAS staining on blood samples to analyze glycogen content in various diseases3-7. For example, in Pompe&#160;disease-a bonafide glycogen storage disease- white blood cells accumulate large amounts of glycogen that differs significantly from healthy controls8.
This video-article demonstrates an adapted version of PAS staining for use on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) samples from venous blood of healthy human subjects. PBMCs contain mostly lymphocytes of the T lymphocyte and B lymphocyte families, as well as other immune cells such as natural killer cells and monocytes. The first purification step removes erythrocytes, neutrophils, and other granulocytes. This technique provides data on a concentrated proportion of lymphocytes allowing for more robust enumeration of PAS-positive cells as compared to using whole blood smears.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52199/52199fig1highres.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Step by step methodology of PAS staining on PBMC. (A) First, isolation of PBMC is achieved through ficoll gradient, the left panel shows the preparation before centrifugation, the right panel shows it after centrifugation where the buffy coat containing the PBMC is observed in the center of the tube. (B) Isolated PBMCs are fixed onto the slide using formalin-ethanol fixative solution. The slide is gently rinsed with distilled water from a plastic wash bottle. (C) The slide is then placed in a 100 ml beaker half way filled with amylase solution, which will dissolve glycogen. The slide is gently rinsed. (D) The slide is treated with periodic acid solution, where oxidation of saccharides takes place. Slides are gently rinsed; this will remove the excess periodic acid and stop the oxidation step. (E) When the Schiff reagent is added to the slides, it will react with aldehydes created during the oxidation step. This colorless reagent will then result in a deep red magenta product. Slides are gently rinsed to remove the excess Schiff reagent.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Periodic Acid Shiff Kit</td><td><a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/395b?lang=en&amp;amp;region=CA" target="_blank"><img src="/img/new_window.png" /> Sigma-Aldrich</a></td><td>395B</td><td>Bring to room temperature prior to use. Materials in this kit are toxic and harmful. Use caution.</td></tr><tr><td>&amp;alpha;-Amylase from porcine pancreas</td><td><a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/a3176?lang=en&amp;amp;region=CA" target="_blank"><img src="/img/new_window.png" /> Sigma-Aldrich</a></td><td>A3176</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Binocular Microscope</td><td>Carl Zeiss Microscopy</td><td>Axio Lab A0</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glycogen Assay Kit</td><td><a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/mak016?lang=en&amp;amp;region=CA" target="_blank"><img src="/img/new_window.png" /> Sigma-Aldrich</a></td><td>MAK016</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ficoll-Paque PLUS</td><td><a href="https://us.vwr.com/store/catalog/product.jsp?product_id=4779441" target="_blank"><img src="/img/new_window.png" /> VWR, GE Healthcare</a></td><td>17-1440-02</td><td>Nonionic synthetic polymer of sucrose.</td></tr><tr><td>Centrifuge</td><td></td><td></td><td>For PBMC isolation, swing buckets were used.</td></tr></tbody></table>

detecting glycogen in peripheral blood mononuclear cells with periodic acid schiff staining

Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) staining is an immunohistochemical technique used on muscle biopsies and as a diagnostic tool for blood samples. Polysaccharides such as glycogen, glycoproteins, and glycolipids stain bright magenta making it easy to enumerate positive and negative cells within the tissue. In muscle cells PAS staining is used to determine the glycogen content in different types of muscle cells, while in blood cell samples PAS staining has been explored as a diagnostic tool for a variety of conditions. Blood contains a proportion of white blood cells that belong to the immune system. The notion that cells of the immune system possess glycogen and use it as an energy source has not been widely explored. Here, we describe an adapted version of the PAS staining protocol that can be applied on peripheral blood mononuclear immune cells from human venous blood. Small cells with PAS-positive granules and larger cells with diffuse PAS staining were observed. Treatment of samples with amylase abrogates these patterns confirming the specificity of the stain. An alternate technique based on enzymatic digestion confirmed the presence and amount of glycogen in the samples. This protocol is useful for hematologists or immunologists studying polysaccharide content in blood-derived lymphocytes.

To validate the reagents and basic technique, PAS staining was performed according to manufacturer&#8217;s instructions on mouse soleus muscle sections. The staining was done same day as the sacrifice and in the last step of the staining, the sections were fixed by xylene. The soleus muscle is known to contain ~35% glycogen-positive cells9. The stained muscle cells displayed two distinct PAS-positive features- punctate granules within the cell, and a continuous line demarking the cell membrane (Figure ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Detecting Glycogen in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells with Periodic Acid Schiff Staining at JoVE.com

Detecting Glycogen in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells with Periodic Acid Schiff Staining

Periodic acid Schiff staining is a technique that visualizes the polysaccharide content of tissues. This article demonstrates periodic acid Schiff staining protocol adapted for use on peripheral blood mononuclear cells purified from human venous blood. Such samples are enriched for lymphocytes and other white blood cells of the immune system.

Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) staining is an immunohistochemical technique used on muscle biopsies and as a diagnostic tool for blood samples. ...

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Immunology and Infection

21.1K Views.  Centre for Structural and Functional Genomics, PERFORM Centre, Concordia University. Periodic acid Schiff staining is a technique that visualizes the polysaccharide content of tissues. This article demonstrates periodic acid Schiff staining protocol adapted for use on peripheral blood mononuclear cells purified from human venous blood. Such samples are enriched for lymphocytes and other white blood cells of the immune system.

Video: Detecting Glycogen in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells with Periodic Acid Schiff Staining

Spectrophotometric Methods for the Study of Eukaryotic Glycogen Metabolism

Glycogen is synthesized as a storage form of glucose by a wide array of organisms, ranging from bacteria to animals. The molecule comprises linear chains of &#945;1,4-linked glucose residues with branches introduced through the addition of &#945;1,6-linkages. Understanding how the synthesis and degradation of glycogen are regulated and how glycogen attains its characteristic branched structure requires the study of the enzymes of glycogen storage. However, the methods most commonly used to study these enzyme activities typically employ reagents or techniques that are not available to all investigators. Here, we discuss a battery of procedures that are technically simple, cost-effective, and yet still capable of providing valuable insight into the control of glycogen storage. The techniques require access to a spectrophotometer, operating in the range of 330 to 800 nm, and are described assuming that the users will employ disposable, plastic cuvettes. However, the procedures are readily scalable and can be modified for use in a microplate reader, allowing highly parallel analysis.

Techniques to measure the activity of key enzymes of glycogen metabolism are presented, using a simple spectrophotometer operating in the visible range.

Glycogen is synthesized as a storage form of glucose by a wide array of organisms, ranging from bacteria to animals. The molecule comprises linear chains ...

Biochemistry

The Extraction of Liver Glycogen Molecules for Glycogen Structure Determination

Liver glycogen is a hyperbranched glucose polymer that is involved in the maintenance of blood sugar levels in animals. The properties of glycogen are influenced by its structure. Hence, a suitable extraction method that isolates representative samples of glycogen is crucial to the study of this macromolecule. Compared to other extraction methods, a method that employs a sucrose density gradient centrifugation step can minimize molecular damage. Based on this method, a recent publication describes how the density of the sucrose solution used during centrifugation was varied (30%, 50%, 72.5%) to find the most suitable concentration to extract glycogen particles of a wide variety of sizes, limiting the loss of smaller particles. A 10 min boiling step was introduced to test its ability to denature glycogen degrading enzymes, thus preserving glycogen. The lowest sucrose concentration (30%) and the addition of the boiling step were shown to extract the most representative samples of glycogen.

An optimal sucrose concentration was determined for the extraction of liver glycogen using sucrose density gradient centrifugation. The addition of a 10 min boiling step to inhibit glycogen-degrading enzymes proved beneficial.

Liver glycogen is a hyperbranched glucose polymer that is involved in the maintenance of blood sugar levels in animals. The properties of glycogen are ...

Quantification of Subcellular Glycogen Distribution in Skeletal Muscle Fibers using Transmission Electron Microscopy

With the use of transmission electron microscopy, high-resolution images of fixed samples containing individual muscle fibers can be obtained. This enables quantifications of ultrastructural aspects such as volume fractions, surface area to volume ratios, morphometry, and physical contact sites of different subcellular structures. In the 1970s, a protocol for enhanced staining of glycogen in cells was developed and paved the way for a string of studies on the subcellular localization of glycogen and glycogen particle size using transmission electron microscopy. While most analyses interpret glycogen as if it is homogeneously distributed within the muscle fibers, providing only a single value (e.g., an average concentration), transmission electron microscopy has revealed that glycogen is stored as discrete glycogen particles located in distinct subcellular compartments. Here, the step-by-step protocol from tissue collection to the quantitative determination of the volume fraction and particle diameter of glycogen in the distinct subcellular compartments of individual skeletal muscle fibers is described. Considerations on how to 1) collect and stain tissue specimens, 2) perform image analyses and data handling, 3) evaluate the precision of estimates, 4) discriminate between muscle fiber types, and 5) methodological pitfalls and limitations are included.

A modified post-fixation procedure increases the contrast of glycogen particles in tissue. This paper provides a step-by-step protocol describing how to handle the tissue, conduct the imaging, and use stereological methods to obtain unbiased and quantitative data on fiber type-specific subcellular glycogen distribution in skeletal muscle.

With the use of transmission electron microscopy, high-resolution images of fixed samples containing individual muscle fibers can be obtained. This ...

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular metabolism. Many methods to detect glycogen already exist but only a few are quantitative. We describe here a method using the Abcam Glycogen assay kit, which is based on specific degradation of glycogen to glucose by glucoamylase. Glucose is then specifically oxidized to a product that reacts with the OxiRed probe to produce fluorescence. Titration is accurate, sensitive and can be achieved on cell extracts or tissue sections. However, in contrast to other techniques, it does not give information about the distribution of glycogen in the cell. As an example of this technique, we describe here the titration of glycogen in two cell lines, Chinese hamster lung fibroblast CCL39 and human colon carcinoma LS174, incubated in normoxia (21% O2) versus hypoxia (1% O2). We hypothesized that hypoxia is a signal that prepares cells to synthesize and store glycogen in order to survive1.

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

We describe here an accurate, reproducible and convenient biochemical method for titration of glycogen in vitro. This technique uses the Abcam Glycogen assay kit and is based on successive hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose and glucose titration by fluorescence.

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular ...

Biology

Detection of Glycosaminoglycans by Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis and Silver Staining

Sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) such as heparan sulfate (HS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) are ubiquitous in living organisms and play a critical role in a variety of basic biological structures and processes. As polymers, GAGs exist as a polydisperse mixture containing polysaccharide chains that can range from 4000 Da to well over 40,000 Da. Within these chains exists domains of sulfation, conferring a pattern of negative charge that facilitates interaction with positively charged residues of cognate protein ligands. Sulfated domains of GAGs must be of sufficient length to allow for these electrostatic interactions. To understand the function of GAGs in biological tissues, the investigator must be able to isolate, purify, and measure the size of GAGs. This report describes a practical and versatile polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis-based technique that can be leveraged to resolve relatively small differences in size between GAGs isolated from a variety of biological tissue types.

This report describes techniques to isolate and purify sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) from biological samples and a polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis approach to approximate their size. GAGs contribute to tissue structure and influence signaling processes via electrostatic interaction with proteins. GAG polymer length contributes to their binding affinity for cognate ligands.

Sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) such as heparan sulfate (HS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) are ubiquitous in living organisms and play a critical role ...

A Non-Degradative Extraction Method for Molecular Structure Characterization of Bacterial Glycogen Particles

Currently, there exist a variety of glycogen extraction methods, which either damage glycogen spatial structure or only partially extract glycogen, leading to the biased characterization of glycogen fine molecular structure. To understand the dynamic changes of glycogen structures and the versatile functions of glycogen particles in bacteria, it is essential to isolate glycogen with minimal degradation. In this study, a mild glycogen isolation method is demonstrated by using cold-water (CW) precipitation via sugar density gradient ultra-centrifugation (SDGU-CW). The traditional trichloroacetic acid (TCA) method and potassium hydroxide (KOH) method were also performed for comparison. A commonly used lab strain, Escherichia coli BL21(DE3), was used as a model organism in this study for demonstration purposes. After extracting glycogen particles using different methods, their structures were analyzed and compared through size exclusion chromatography (SEC) for particle size distribution and fluorophore-assisted capillary electrophoresis (FACE) for linear chain length distributions. The analysis confirmed that glycogen extracted via SDGU-CW had minimal degradation.

Bacterial glycogen structure is greatly impacted by extraction methods which may result in molecular degradation and/or biased sampling. It is essential to develop methods to minimize these problems. Here, four extraction methods have been compared using size distribution and chain length distribution as key criteria for minimizing extraction artifacts.

Currently, there exist a variety of glycogen extraction methods, which either damage glycogen spatial structure or only partially extract glycogen, ...

Periodic Acid-Schiff Staining of Cells: An In Vitro Technique to Detect Glycogen Levels in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

Source: Tabatabaei Shafiei, M., et al. <a href="https://www.jove.com/v/52199">Detecting Glycogen in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells with Periodic Acid Schiff Staining.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2014).
This video demonstrates the periodic acid-Schiff staining technique for assessing glycogen levels of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. The stain imparts a magenta color to intracellular glycogen granules, rendering them visible under a microscope.

Source: Tabatabaei Shafiei, M., et al. Detecting Glycogen in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells with Periodic Acid Schiff Staining. J. Vis. Exp. (2014).
...

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Transmission Electron Microscopy to Quantify Glycogen Distribution in Human Skeletal Muscles

Source: Jensen, R., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/63347">Quantification of Subcellular Glycogen Distribution in Skeletal Muscle Fibers using Transmission Electron Microscopy.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2022)
In this video, we demonstrate the sample preparation of human skeletal muscle tissue and its staining for transmission electron microscopy to visualize and quantify subcellular glycogen distribution.

Source: Jensen, R., et al. Quantification of Subcellular Glycogen Distribution in Skeletal Muscle Fibers using Transmission Electron Microscopy. J. Vis. ...

Microscopy Techniques

Detecting Circulating Anti-Glycan Antibodies with a Printed Glycan Array

Source: Olivera-Ardid, S. et al., <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/57662">Printed Glycan Array: A Sensitive Technique for the Analysis of the Repertoire of Circulating Anti-carbohydrate Antibodies in Small Animals.</a>&#160;J. Vis. Exp.&#160;(2019)
This video demonstrates printed glycan array technology for analyzing circulating anti-glycan antibodies in mouse serum. The antibodies in the serum interact with specific glycans on the chip, which is confirmed by immunostaining followed by fluorescence scanning.

All procedures involving sample collection have been performed in accordance with the institute&#39;s IRB guidelines.
1. Glycochips Production

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Immunology

Antibody-Based Technologies

Characterization and Functional Analysis

Glycogen Branching Assay to Measure the Degree of Glycogen Branching

Source: Wilson, W. A., <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/63046">Spectrophotometric Methods for the Study of Eukaryotic Glycogen Metabolism.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2021).
In this video, we describe a qualitative spectrophotometric assay to determine the extent of branching in a glycogen sample with an uncharacterized structure. Comparing the absorbance maxima of the uncharacterized sample with that of polysaccharides with known branched structures indicates the presence of branching in the uncharacterized sample.

Source: Wilson, W. A., Spectrophotometric Methods for the Study of Eukaryotic Glycogen Metabolism. J. Vis. Exp. (2021).
In this video, we describe a ...

Detecting Glycogen in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells with Periodic Acid Schiff Staining

Samenvatting

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