Supported by grants from CIHR (MOP231122) and NSERC (RGPIN-2014-06503). We would like to thank Genevi&#232;ve Cyr for her help preparing experiments and supervising laboratory work. MAL received a scholarship from The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).

NOTE: All procedures were performed in accordance with the directives of the Canadian Council for the Protection of Animals and the Ethics review board of the Universit&#233; de Montr&#233;al.
1. Assembly of the Recording-injection Pipette
<ol>
	<li>Pull an approximately 7 cm long glass capillary (1 mm outer diameter) using a pipette puller.</li>
	<li>Break the tip of the capillary and check the aperture under a light microscope. Confirm that the inner diameter is between 30 &#181;m to 40 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Insert a 7 cm long silver wire into the glass capillary with approximately 1 cm protruding from the non-tapered end of the glass pipette.</li>
	<li>Bend the excess filament orthogonally to the glass capillary.</li>
	<li>Apply a droplet of flexible plastic adhesive on the shaft of a 30 G hypodermic needle.</li>
	<li>Insert a 30 G hypodermic needle in the glass pipette according to the schematics presented in Figure 1.</li>
	<li>Add a second coating of glue to ensure a proper seal from the junction between the glass pipette and the hypodermic needle.</li>
	<li>Leave the pipette to dry with the tip facing upward for about 12 hr to ensure proper curing of the glue. The finished result is shown in Figure 2.</li>
</ol>
NOTE: This procedure is done on acute experiments and sterilization of the pipette tip is not required.
2. Animal Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Place the rat in an anesthesia box.</li>
	<li>Induce anesthesia using 4% isoflurane for 5 to 10 min.</li>
	<li>Place the animal on a stereotaxic table with heating pad and rectal probe to maintain a body temperature of 37 &#176;C. Use a nose cone to maintain anesthesia with 2% isoflurane. Secure the rat&#8217;s head using ear bars and teeth holder.</li>
	<li>Apply ophthalmic ointment or eye drops, which include 1% Atropine drops to aid in pupil dilation.&#160; To prevent dryness, apply lubricating drops approximately every 30 min.</li>
	<li>Shave the head and clean it with 10% povidone-Iodine.</li>
	<li>For local anaesthesia, inject 0.5 ml of 2% lidocaine under the scalp in 2-3 locations by lifting up the skin and inserting the tip of the needle.</li>
	<li>Confirm adequate level of anesthesia by performing a toe pinch and observing the lack of movement. In addition, monitor the heart rate to ensure that it is within normal values (300 to 400 beats/min).</li>
	<li>Incise the scalp in a straight line along the median with a #10 scalpel blade to expose both the coronal and sagittal sutures.</li>
	<li>Reveal the Lambda and Bregma points by pushing aside the tissue that is covering the cranium with a surgical spatula.</li>
	<li>Level the cranium so that Bregma and Lambda positions are on the same plane.</li>
	<li>To set the reference point, use a stereotaxic device with a mounted glass tube to set it right above Bregma. This will be the &#8220;zero&#8221; for the antero-posterior and medial-lateral measurements coordinates.</li>
	<li>Set the point of interest by moving the stereotaxic mount to the required coordinates, note the stereotaxic coordinates and draw a square around the target area that marks where the craniotomy will be performed.</li>
	<li>Use a surgical drill with a sterilized drill along the marked square slowly without pressure to slowly remove the bone material. Be careful not to drill too long in the same area, as it will produce heat and cause lesions on the cortex.</li>
	<li>When the bone delimiting the craniotomy has become sufficiently thin, carefully remove the cranial section with tweezers to expose the cortex.</li>
	<li>Frequently irrigate the exposed cortex with artificial cerebral spinal fluid to prevent tissue desiccation. 
	NOTE: Dura mater removal is unnecessary on the rat as the tip of the injectrode is sturdy enough to penetrate.</li>
</ol>
3. Filling and Mounting of the Injection System
<ol>
	<li>Fill the 5-10 &#181;l microsyringe by aspiration with mineral oil.</li>
	<li>Fill the hypodermic needle with the fixed glass pipette with a solution of 0.5% Chicago Sky Blue (CSB) and 300 &#181;M &#947;-aminobutyric acid (GABA) or a solution of 2% lidocaine with 0.5% CSB 9. Dilute all solutions with saline.
	<ol>
		<li>In the case of an abundant substance, fill using a regular syringe and use the usual precautionary techniques to avoid the formation of air bubbles.</li>
		<li>In the case of more expensive substances, use mineral oil to fill the injectrode and the chemical agent can then be introduced by aspiration. As the density difference between mineral oil and water is relatively high, this substance is a good candidate for the injection of aqueous solutions. 
		NOTE: A dye can be added to confirm the separation between both liquids.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To fill the injection pipette, fill a 1 ml syringe with the solution by aspiration and then slowly inject the solution into the injection pipette.</li>
	<li>Pay careful attention for leaks in regions indicated in Figure 1 by swabbing these areas clean and observing leakages by further injecting the solution slowly with the syringe.</li>
	<li>Remove the 1 ml syringe. When doing so, be sure to keep light pressure on the plunger so that the vacuum does not remove the solution from the injection pipette.</li>
	<li>Fill the microsyringe with mineral oil by aspiration and attach it firmly to the filled injection pipette, then carefully wipe away any excess solution from the assembled injectrode with gauze.</li>
	<li>Verify that the tip is not blocked by injecting a very small volume, enough to see a small drop forming at the tip of the glass pipette.</li>
	<li>Mount the injectrode on the micropump system and ensure that it is well fixed.</li>
	<li>Carefully position the injectrode tip at the target coordinates and lower the tip to the surface of the cortex.</li>
	<li>Slowly lower the injectrode using the stereotaxic apparatus to the target structure (superior colliculus in this case) using the appropriate anatomical coordinates.</li>
	<li>Cover the exposed cortex with warm agar to prevent tissue desiccation.</li>
</ol>
4. Injection and Reversible Inactivation
<ol>
	<li>Set the microinjection pump to inject 400 to 800 nl at 40 nl/min and press Run to start the injection. Note that spike rate will show reduction during the injection. 
	NOTE: In the experimental setup, neural activity recovered within an hour after the end of GABA delivery. Any calibrated mechanical device can be used to apply pressure on the microinjection syringe in order to conduct the injection.</li>
	<li>After acquisition of the electrophysiological data, euthanize using a method approved by the local Animal Ethics Community.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Martin, J. H., Ghez, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pharmacological+inactivation+in+the+analysis+of+the+central+control+of+movement.">Pharmacological inactivation in the analysis of the central control of movement.</a> Journal Of Neuroscience Methods. 86 (2), 145-159 (1999).</li><li>Ponce, C. R., Hunter, J. N., Pack, C. C., Lomber, S. G., Born, R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contributions+of+indirect+pathways+to+visual+response+properties+in+macaque+middle+temporal+area+MT.">Contributions of indirect pathways to visual response properties in macaque middle temporal area MT.</a> The Journal Of Neuroscience The Official Journal Of The Society For Neuroscience. 31 (10), 3894-3903 (2011).</li><li>Lomber, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+advantages+and+limitations+of+permanent+or+reversible+deactivation+techniques+in+the+assessment+of+neural+function.">The advantages and limitations of permanent or reversible deactivation techniques in the assessment of neural function.</a> Journal Of Neuroscience Methods. 86 (2), 109-117 (1999).</li><li>Malpeli, J., Schiller, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+of+reversible+inactivation+of+small+regions+of+brain+tissue.">A method of reversible inactivation of small regions of brain tissue.</a> Journal Of Neuroscience Methods. 1 (2), 143-151 (1979).</li><li>Lomber, S. G., Payne, B. R., Horel, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cryoloop:+an+adaptable+reversible+cooling+deactivation+method+for+behavioral+or+electrophysiological+assessment+of+neural+function.">The cryoloop: an adaptable reversible cooling deactivation method for behavioral or electrophysiological assessment of neural function.</a> Journal Of Neuroscience Methods. 86 (2), 179-194 (1999).</li><li>Gonzalez-Perez, O., Guerrero-Cazares, H., Qui&#241;ones-Hinojosa, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+of+deep+brain+structures+with+microinjections+for+delivery+of+drugs,+viral+vectors,+or+cell+transplants.">Targeting of deep brain structures with microinjections for delivery of drugs, viral vectors, or cell transplants.</a> Journal Of Visualized Experiments. (46), (2010).</li><li>Hup&#233;, J., Chouvet, G., Bullier, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+and+temporal+parameters+of+cortical+inactivation+by+GABA.">Spatial and temporal parameters of cortical inactivation by GABA.</a> Journal Of Neuroscience Methods. 86 (2), 129-143 (1999).</li><li>Casanova, C., McKinley, P., Molotchnikofff, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Responsiveness+of+Reorganized+Primary+Somatosensory+(SI)+Cortex+after+Local+Inactivation+of+Normal+SI+Cortex+in+Chronic+Spinal+Cats.">Responsiveness of Reorganized Primary Somatosensory (SI) Cortex after Local Inactivation of Normal SI Cortex in Chronic Spinal Cats.</a> Somatosensory &amp; Motor Research. 8 (1), 65-76 (1991).</li><li>Malpeli, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reversible+inactivation+of+subcortical+sites+by+drug+injection.">Reversible inactivation of subcortical sites by drug injection.</a> Journal Of Neuroscience Methods. 86 (2), 119-128 (1999).</li><li>Minville, K., Casanova, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+frequency+processing+in+posteromedial+lateral+suprasylvian+cortex+does+not+depend+on+the+projections+from+the+striate-recipient+zone+of+the+cat&#8217;s+lateral+posterior-pulvinar+complex.">Spatial frequency processing in posteromedial lateral suprasylvian cortex does not depend on the projections from the striate-recipient zone of the cat&#8217;s lateral posterior-pulvinar complex.</a> Neuroscience. 84 (3), 699-711 (1998).</li><li>Diao, Y., Wang, Y., Xiao, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Representation+of+the+binocular+visual+field+in+the+superior+colliculus+of+the+albino+rat.">Representation of the binocular visual field in the superior colliculus of the albino rat.</a> Experimental Brain Research. 52 (1), 67-72 (1983).</li></ol>

We have nothing to disclose.

The proposed protocol was designed to solve the challenges arising from current reversible inactivation methods. Specifically, this project aimed at refining the methods used for chemical microinjections of substances modulating neural activity, particularly in deep brain structures. A technical challenge emerging from this type of setup is the need for both probes to be colocalized in the same restricted space in vivo in order to derive precise recordings at the injection site. This issue can be overcome by usi...

The inactivation of cortical areas and sub-cortical nuclei is important in the study of functional relations between various brain structures2-4. Recent literature has employed loss-of-function chemical or cryogenic techniques to study the role of brain structures2,5. In regard to pharmacological microinjections, small volumes of drugs can be administered into a brain region at a controlled rate while minimizing the collateral damage to the surrounding tissue6,7. This technique can be used to deliver specific agonists, inverse agonists or antagonists to study the effect of different pharmacological targets on neuronal activity. Such effects can also be studied by measuring changes in neuronal responses from distant locations, allowing researchers to study the relationships between different cortical and subcortical structures.
Here, we demonstrate the assembly of a device, the injectrode, capable of both recording electrophysiological signals and delivering small amounts of drugs at the target location. We demonstrate the capabilities of this system by injecting GABA, a common inhibitor of neuronal activity, in the rat superior colliculus. This region is sensitive to visual stimulation, which allowed us to use visually evoked multiunit activity&#160;to confirm injectrode localization. The reversibility of the inactivation was assessed by the recovery of normal neuronal activity following the end of GABA injection.
The ability to monitor multi-unit activity from the injection site allows for the fine tuning of the injection rates and volumes needed to achieve the desired pharmacodynamic response. Therefore, an advantage of this technique is the potential limiting of tissue damage caused by microperfusion, since the smallest effective volumes are injected. The proposed protocol provides a cost efficient method for generating the disposable hardware necessary for conducting experiments where drug delivery and local neuronal activity recording is desired.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Injection pump (UltraMicroPump III)</td><td>WPI</td><td>#UMP3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Injection console (Micro4 Controller)</td><td>WPI</td><td>#SYS-MICRO4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hamilton syringe</td><td>Hamliton</td><td>(80301) 701LT 10 &amp;micro;L SYR</td><td>Syringes between 5 and 10 &amp;mu;l used</td></tr><tr><td>Flexible plastic adhesive</td><td>Lepage</td><td>393915</td><td>The gel form is easier to apply to the shaft of the 30&amp;nbsp;G hypodermic needle forming a waterproof seal when dry.</td></tr><tr><td>Glass pipettes</td><td>WPI</td><td>#TW100F-4</td><td>Thin wall, 1&amp;nbsp;mm OD, 0.75&amp;nbsp;mm ID with filament pipettes used</td></tr><tr><td>720 Needle Pipette Puller</td><td>Kopf</td><td>720</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silver wire</td><td>A-M Systems, Inc.</td><td>782500</td><td>Bare 0.010&amp;rdquo;</td></tr></tbody></table>

simultaneous electrophysiological recording and micro-injections of inhibitory agents in the rodent brain

Here we describe a method for the construction of a single-use &#8220;injectrode&#8221; using commercially accessible and affordable parts. A probing system was developed that allows for the injection of a drug while recording electrophysiological signals from the affected neuronal population. This method provides a simple and economical alternative to commercial solutions. A glass pipette was modified by combining it with a hypodermic needle and a silver filament. The injectrode is attached to commercial microsyringe pump for drug delivery. This results in a technique that provides real-time pharmacodynamics feedback through multi-unit extracellular signals originating from the site of drug delivery. As a proof of concept, we recorded neuronal activity from the superior colliculus elicited by flashes of light in rats, concomitantly with delivery of drugs through the injectrode. The injectrode recording capacity permits the functional characterization of the injection site favoring precise control over the localization of drug delivery. Application of this method also extends far beyond what is demonstrated here, as the choice of chemical substance loaded into the injectrode is vast, including tracing markers for anatomic experiments.

The construction of the injectrode is illustrated in Figure 1. A silver wire (C) is fed into a glass pipette (D) with a portion of the wire bent and protruding out from the opening. A 30 G needle (B) is attached and sealed to the opening of the glass pipette with glue. After the pipette has been filled with the injection substance, a glass micro syringe (A) is attached to the needle. It is important that there is a good seal where the micro syringe connects with the needle (E) and where the silver wire p...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Micro-injections of Inhibitory Agents in the Rodent Brain at JoVE.com

Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Micro-injections of Inhibitory Agents in the Rodent Brain

Here, we craft a glass pipette with dual functions: inhibition of deep brain structures by microinjections of drugs and real-time monitoring of their effects through simultaneous electrophysiological recordings.

Here we describe a method for the construction of a single-use &#8220;injectrode&#8221; using commercially accessible and affordable parts. A probing ...

simultaneous-electrophysiological-recording-micro-injections

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Neuroscience

8.1K Views.  Université de Montréal. Here, we craft a glass pipette with dual functions: inhibition of deep brain structures by microinjections of drugs and real-time monitoring of their effects through simultaneous electrophysiological recordings.

Video: Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Micro-injections of Inhibitory Agents in the Rodent Brain

Simultaneous fMRI and Electrophysiology in the Rodent Brain

To examine the neural basis of the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signal, we have developed a rodent model in which functional MRI data and in vivo intracortical recording can be performed simultaneously. The combination of MRI and electrical recording is technically challenging because the electrodes used for recording distort the MRI images and the MRI acquisition induces noise in the electrical recording. To minimize the mutual interference of the two modalities, glass microelectrodes were used rather than metal and a noise removal algorithm was implemented for the electrophysiology data. In our studies, two microelectrodes were separately implanted in bilateral primary somatosensory cortices (SI) of the rat and fixed in place. One coronal slice covering the electrode tips was selected for functional MRI. Electrode shafts and fixation positions were not included in the image slice to avoid imaging artifacts. The removed scalp was replaced with toothpaste to reduce susceptibility mismatch and prevent Gibbs ringing artifacts in the images. The artifact structure induced in the electrical recordings by the rapidly-switching magnetic fields during image acquisition was characterized by averaging all cycles of scans for each run. The noise structure during imaging was then subtracted from original recordings. The denoised time courses were then used for further analysis in combination with the fMRI data. As an example, the simultaneous acquisition was used to determine the relationship between spontaneous fMRI BOLD signals and band-limited intracortical electrical activity. Simultaneous fMRI and electrophysiological recording in the rodent will provide a platform for many exciting applications in neuroscience in addition to elucidating the relationship between the fMRI BOLD signal and neuronal activity.

We have developed a method for simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging and electrophysiological recording in the rodent brain, providing a platform for the investigation of the relationship between neural activity and the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) MRI signal.

To examine the neural basis of the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signal, we have developed a rodent model in ...

Simultaneous Electroencephalography, Real-time Measurement of Lactate Concentration and Optogenetic Manipulation of Neuronal Activity in the Rodent Cerebral Cortex

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body at rest1. The function of non rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS), the largest portion of sleep by time, is uncertain. However, one salient feature of NREMS is a significant reduction in the rate of cerebral glucose utilization relative to wakefulness2-4. This and other findings have led to the widely held belief that sleep serves a function related to cerebral metabolism. Yet, the mechanisms underlying the reduction in cerebral glucose metabolism during NREMS remain to be elucidated.
	One phenomenon associated with NREMS that might impact cerebral metabolic rate is the occurrence of slow waves, oscillations at frequencies less than 4 Hz, in the electroencephalogram5,6. These slow waves detected at the level of the skull or cerebral cortical surface reflect the oscillations of underlying neurons between a depolarized/up state and a hyperpolarized/down state7. During the down state, cells do not undergo action potentials for intervals of up to several hundred milliseconds. Restoration of ionic concentration gradients subsequent to action potentials represents a significant metabolic load on the cell8; absence of action potentials during down states associated with NREMS may contribute to reduced metabolism relative to wake.
	Two technical challenges had to be addressed in order for this hypothetical relationship to be tested. First, it was necessary to measure cerebral glycolytic metabolism with a temporal resolution reflective of the dynamics of the cerebral EEG (that is, over seconds rather than minutes). To do so, we measured the concentration of lactate, the product of aerobic glycolysis, and therefore a readout of the rate of glucose metabolism in the brains of mice. Lactate was measured using a lactate oxidase based real time sensor embedded in the frontal cortex. The sensing mechanism consists of a platinum-iridium electrode surrounded by a layer of lactate oxidase molecules. Metabolism of lactate by lactate oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide, which produces a current in the platinum-iridium electrode. So a ramping up of cerebral glycolysis provides an increase in the concentration of substrate for lactate oxidase, which then is reflected in increased current at the sensing electrode. It was additionally necessary to measure these variables while manipulating the excitability of the cerebral cortex, in order to isolate this variable from other facets of NREMS.
	We devised an experimental system for simultaneous measurement of neuronal activity via the elecetroencephalogram, measurement of glycolytic flux via a lactate biosensor, and manipulation of cerebral cortical neuronal activity via optogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons. We have utilized this system to document the relationship between sleep-related electroencephalographic waveforms and the moment-to-moment dynamics of lactate concentration in the cerebral cortex. The protocol may be useful for any individual interested in studying, in freely behaving rodents, the relationship between neuronal activity measured at the electroencephalographic level and cellular energetics within the brain.

A procedure is described for manipulating the activity of cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons optogenetically while the electroencephalogram, electromyogram, and cerebral lactate concentration are monitored. Experimental recordings are performed on cable-tethered mice while they undergo spontaneous sleep/wake cycles. Optogenetic equipment is assembled in our laboratory; recording equipment is commercially available.

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body  by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body  at rest1. The ...

Extracellular Recording of Neuronal Activity Combined with Microiontophoretic Application of Neuroactive Substances in Awake Mice

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and awake animals. Therefore, methods allowing the manipulation of synaptic systems in awake animals are required in order to determine the contribution of synaptic inputs to neuronal processing unaffected by anesthetics. Here, we present methodology for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. By combining these procedures, we performed microiontophoretic injections of gabazine to selectively block GABAA receptors in neurons of the inferior colliculus of head-restrained mice. Gabazine successfully modified neural response properties such as the frequency response area and stimulus-specific adaptation. Thus, we demonstrate that our methods are suitable for recording single-unit activity and for dissecting the role of specific neurotransmitter receptors in auditory processing.
The main limitation of the described procedure is the relatively short recording time (~3 hr), which is determined by the level of habituation of the animal to the recording sessions. On the other hand, multiple recording sessions can be performed in the same animal. The advantage of this technique over other experimental procedures used to manipulate the level of neurotransmission or neuromodulation (such as systemic injections or the use of optogenetic models), is that the drug effect is confined to the local synaptic inputs to the target neuron. In addition, the custom-manufacture of electrodes allows adjustment of specific parameters according to the neural structure and type of neuron of interest (such as the tip resistance for improving the signal-to-noise ratio of the recordings).

We present methods for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. This technique allows the detailed analysis of putative local synaptic inputs to the neuron of interest.

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and ...

Acute In Vivo Electrophysiological Recordings of Local Field Potentials and Multi-unit Activity from the Hyperdirect Pathway in Anesthetized Rats

Converging evidence shows that many neuropsychiatric diseases should be understood as disorders of large-scale neuronal networks. To better understand the pathophysiological basis of these diseases, it is necessary to precisely characterize in which way the processing of information is disturbed between the different neuronal parts of the circuit. Using extracellular in vivo electrophysiological recordings, it is possible to accurately delineate neuronal activity within a neuronal network. The application of this method has several advantages over alternative techniques, e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging and calcium imaging, as it allows a unique temporal and spatial resolution and does not rely on genetically engineered organisms. However, the use of extracellular in vivo recordings is limited since it is an invasive technique that cannot be universally applied. In this article, a simple and easy to use method is presented with which it is possible to simultaneously record extracellular potentials such as local field potentials and multiunit activity at multiple sites of a network. It is detailed how a precise targeting of subcortical nuclei can be achieved using a combination of stereotactic surgery and online analysis of multi-unit recordings. Thus, it is demonstrated, how a complete network such as the hyperdirect cortico-basal ganglia loop can be studied in anesthetized animals in vivo.

Acute In Vivo Electrophysiological Recordings of Local Field Potentials and Multi-unit Activity from the Hyperdirect Pathway in Anesthetized Rats

In this study, the methodology is presented on how to perform multi-site in vivo electrophysiological recordings from the hyperdirect pathway under urethane anesthesia.

Converging evidence shows that many neuropsychiatric diseases should be understood as disorders of large-scale neuronal networks. To better understand the ...

Concurrent Recording of Co-localized Electroencephalography and Local Field Potential in Rodent

Although electroencephalography (EEG) is widely used as a non-invasive technique for recording neural activities of the brain, our understanding of the neurogenesis of EEG is still very limited. Local field potentials (LFPs) recorded via a multi-laminar microelectrode can provide a more detailed account of simultaneous neural activity across different cortical layers in the neocortex, but the technique is invasive. Combining EEG and LFP measurements in a pre-clinical model can greatly enhance understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in the generation of EEG signals, and facilitate the derivation of a more realistic and biologically accurate mathematical model of EEG. A simple procedure for acquiring concurrent and co-localized EEG and multi-laminar LFP signals in the anesthetized rodent is presented here. We also investigated whether EEG signals were significantly affected by a burr hole drilled in the skull for the insertion of a microelectrode. Our results suggest that the burr hole has a negligible impact on EEG recordings.

This protocol describes a simple method for concurrent recording of co-localized electroencephalography (EEG) and multi-laminar local field potential in an anesthetized rat. A burr hole drilled in the skull for the insertion of a microelectrode is shown to produce negligible distortion of the EEG signal.

Although electroencephalography (EEG) is widely used as a non-invasive technique for recording neural activities of the brain, our understanding of the ...

Recording and Modulation of Epileptiform Activity in Rodent Brain Slices Coupled to Microelectrode Arrays

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a promising approach when pharmacological treatment fails or neurosurgery is not recommended. Acute brain slices coupled to microelectrode arrays (MEAs) represent a valuable tool to study neuronal network interactions and their modulation by electrical stimulation. As compared to conventional extracellular recording techniques, they provide the added advantages of a greater number of observation points and a known inter-electrode distance, which allow studying the propagation path and speed of electrophysiological signals. However, tissue oxygenation may be greatly impaired during MEA recording, requiring a high perfusion rate, which comes at the cost of decreased signal-to-noise ratio and higher oscillations in the experimental temperature. Electrical stimulation further stresses the brain tissue, making it difficult to pursue prolonged recording/stimulation epochs. Moreover, electrical modulation of brain slice activity needs to target specific structures/pathways within the brain slice, requiring that electrode mapping be easily and quickly performed live during the experiment. Here, we illustrate how to perform the recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine (4AP)-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using planar MEAs. We show that the brain tissue obtained from mice outperforms rat brain tissue and is thus better suited for MEA experiments. This protocol guarantees the generation and maintenance of a stable epileptiform pattern that faithfully reproduces the electrophysiological features observed with conventional field potential recording, persists for several hours, and outlasts sustained electrical stimulation for prolonged epochs. Tissue viability throughout the experiment is achieved thanks to the use of a small-volume custom recording chamber allowing for laminar flow and quick solution exchange even at low (1 mL/min) perfusion rates. Quick MEA mapping for real-time monitoring and selection of stimulating electrodes is performed by a custom graphic user interface (GUI).

We illustrate how to perform recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using microelectrode arrays. A custom recording chamber maintains tissue viability throughout prolonged experimental sessions. Live electrode mapping and selection of stimulating pairs are performed by a custom graphical user interface.

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) ...

Microinjectrode System for Combined Drug Infusion and Electrophysiology

This microinjectrode system is designed for drug infusion, electrophysiology, and delivery and retrieval of experimental probes, such as microelectrodes and nanosensors, optimized for repeated use in awake, behaving animals. The microinjectrode system can be configured for multiple purposes: (1) simple arrangement of the cannula for placement of an experimental probe that would otherwise be too fragile to penetrate the dura mater, (2) microfluidic infusion of a drug, either independently or coupled to a cannula containing an experimental probe (i.e., microelectrode, nanosensor). In this protocol we explain the step by step construction of the microinjectrode, its coupling to microfluidic components, and the protocol for use of the system in vivo. The microfluidic components of this system allow for delivery of volumes on the nanoliter scale, with minimal penetration damage. Drug infusion can be performed independently or simultaneously with experimental probes such as microelectrodes or nanosensors in an awake, behaving animal. Applications of this system range from measuring the effects of a drug on cortical electrical activity and behavior, to understanding the function of a specific region of cortex in the context of behavioral performance based on probe or nanosensor measurements. To demonstrate some of the capabilities of this system, we present an example of muscimol infusion for reversible inactivation of the frontal eye field (FEF) in rhesus macaque during a working memory task.

We present a microinjectrode system designed for electrophysiology and assisted delivery of experimental probes (i.e., nanosensors, microelectrodes), with optional drug infusion. Widely available microfluidic components are coupled to a cannula containing the probe. A step-by-step protocol for microinjectrode construction is included, with results during muscimol infusion in macaque cortex.

This microinjectrode system is designed for drug infusion, electrophysiology, and delivery and retrieval of experimental probes, such as microelectrodes ...

Drug Microinjection with Electrophysiological Recording in a Rat Brain

Source: Lai, J., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/52271">Simultaneous electrophysiological recording and micro-injections of inhibitory agents in the rodent brain.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2015)
This protocol outlines the assembly and use of an injectrode for precise drug delivery into targeted brain regions of an anesthetized rat, followed by monitoring of neuronal activity through recorded electrical signals.

All procedures involving animal models have been reviewed by the local institutional animal care committee and the JoVE veterinary review ...

JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Neurophysiology

Electrophysiology Techniques

In Vivo Electrophysiological Recordings of Brain Activities from Multiple Sites in Rats

Source: Haumesser, J. K., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/55940">Acute In Vivo Electrophysiological Recordings of Local Field Potentials and Multi-unit Activity from the Hyperdirect Pathway in Anesthetized Rats.</a> J. Vis. Exp.(2017).
This video demonstrates the detailed procedure for preparing an anesthetized rat for electrophysiological recordings of brain activity from multiple sites. The scalp is dissected to access the skull, and holes are drilled at precise locations to install and secure electrodes. Tungsten microwire electrodes are then inserted into the targeted location to record the data.

All procedures involving animal models have been reviewed by the local institutional animal care committee and the JoVE veterinary review board.
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A Micro-drive Array Method for Electrophysiological Recording from Multiple Brain Regions

Source: Shikano, Y., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/56980">Simultaneous Recordings of Cortical Local Field Potentials, Electrocardiogram, Electromyogram, and Breathing Rhythm from a Freely Moving Rat.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2018).
The video demonstrates simultaneous electrophysiological recording from multiple brain regions in a rat using an integrative micro-drive array. Recording electrodes are placed in the olfactory bulb, reference electrodes in the frontal cortex, and micro-drive array electrodes in the hippocampus. The rat is allowed to forage freely, and simultaneous recording from all the implanted electrodes is recorded using the array.

Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Micro-injections of Inhibitory Agents in the Rodent Brain

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