This work has been funded by an American Heart Association Scientist Development Grant (#12SDG12200001) to E. Vasudevan. R. Hamzey's current affiliation is Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA. E. Kirk's current affiliation is the MGH Institute of Health Professions Department of Physical Therapy.

All procedures have been approved by the Institutional Review Board at Stony Brook University.
1. Experimental Set-up
Note: Refer to Supplementary File 1-Definitions for definitions of common terms used in split-belt treadmill experiments.
<ol>
	<li>Screen all participants for prior experience with the split-belt treadmill. 
	NOTE: People have been shown to readapt faster to the split-belt treadmill following a prior exposure to it29,30. The timescale over which people &#34;forget&#34; the split-belt treadmill is not presently known; thus, prior experience with the split-belt treadmill may be a confounding variable if it is not controlled.</li>
	<li>Conduct all testing in a quiet environment, and minimize activity in the testing room.</li>
	<li>Set up a motion tracking system (according to system instructions) to record movement on a split-belt treadmill and on an over ground walkway. 
	NOTE: For example, the current protocol used a motion tracking system with active LED markers. Four tripod-mounted sensor units detected the three-dimensional position of the active markers, with two units placed on either side (right and left) of the treadmill and two on either side of a 7 m over ground walkway.</li>
	<li>Outfit the participant with motion tracking markers, electromyography, etc.</li>
	<li>Consider including a partition between the two belts of the split-belt treadmill to prevent the legs from crossing over to the contralateral belt. This partition is not strictly necessary for neurologically-intact adults but may be helpful for testing children or clinical populations. Note that the presence of a partition likely increases step width; however, the extent to which this affects split-belt adaptation is unknown.</li>
	<li>Set up a safety harness over the treadmill to protect the participant from falling during treadmill walking. 
	NOTE: The harness should not support body weight, unless this is part of the research question. Although falling during treadmill walking is exceedingly rare, many research ethics boards require safety harness use.</li>
	<li>Maintain consistency in arm movement across the experimental paradigm and across participants. When deciding on the type of arm movement (e.g., holding handrails, swinging arms naturally), consider what will be comfortable for the subject group and whether typical arm swing will obscure the visibility of critical markers used for motion capture (e.g., for markers placed on the hips).
	<ol>
		<li>Regardless of arm movement, instruct all participants to hold handrails while starting and stopping the treadmill for safety.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Maintain consistency in incline across the experimental paradigm. 
	NOTE: To our knowledge, all published split-belt treadmill protocols, including the current one, have used zero incline for treadmill and over ground walking.</li>
</ol>
2. Baseline Period
Note: The purpose of the baseline period is to establish what normal walking coordination is for each person. Baseline coordination should be tested in all the conditions in which after-effects are tested. For example, in the current protocol, after-effects were tested during treadmill and over ground walking at different speeds (0.7 and 1.4 m/s). Therefore, baseline over ground and treadmill trials at 0.7 and 1.4 m/s were included. This allows a direct comparison of after-effects to baseline walking coordination at the same speed and context. Over ground walking baseline trials can be eliminated when the experimental objectives do not include generalization to over ground walking.
<ol>
	<li>For over ground baseline trials, instruct the participant to walk over the ground on a walkway where motion capture data can be collected. Collect a minimum of 10 stride cycles to establish the baseline over ground walking.
	<ol>
		<li>If the motion capture system only allows for motion capture within a limited space, have the participant perform several passes (e.g., trials) through the motion capture space. At the end of each trial, instruct the participant to stop, turn in place, and prepare for the researcher&#39;s cue to begin the next trial.</li>
		<li>For each trial, ensure that at least two stride cycles are performed within the motion capture space, not including the first and last stride cycles. 
		NOTE: These initial and final stride cycles will be discarded from analysis as they are acceleration/deceleration strides, not steady-state walking.</li>
		<li>Have the participants perform several (typically 10) over ground walking trials.
		<ol>
			<li>If a specific speed is desired, have the participant walk at that speed on the treadmill (on tied-belts) to familiarize him/her with the task. Then, move back to the walkway, instruct the participant to walk at the same speed as he/she did on the treadmill, and time the participant during each trial of over ground walking. Give verbal feedback in between each trial to speed up or slow down, if needed25.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>For treadmill baseline trials, instruct the participant to walk on tied-belts for 1 - 5 min. 
	NOTE: This constitutes a single baseline trial. If the participant is unfamiliar with treadmill walking, this period may be lengthened to allow the person to become comfortable with the task.
	<ol>
		<li>Match the speed(s) of baseline trials to the speed(s) at which the after-effects will be tested, to allow for comparison of pre- and post-adaptation gait coordination at equivalent speeds. 
		NOTE: Multiple baseline trials (i.e., 1 - 5 min blocks) at different tied-belt speeds may be required; for example, in the current protocol, baseline trials at tied-belt speeds of 0.7 m/s and 1.4 m/s were collected because those were the speeds used to evaluate after-effects.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Adaptation Period
Note: Participants do not need to be instructed that they are about to walk on split-belts. In many experiments, including the current one, participants are not told whether belts will be tied- or split-; they are simply told when the treadmill will be starting or stopping. This allows the experimenter to measure the effects of an unanticipated change in the walking environment.
<ol>
	<li>While the participant is standing on the stationary treadmill belts, start the split-belt treadmill with one belt running faster than the other and allow the participant to walk for at least 7 min (10 - 15 min is more common).
	<ol>
		<li>Instruct the participant to look straight ahead, not down at their feet.</li>
		<li>Set one belt speed faster than the other (e.g.,2 - 3 fold differences between belt speeds). 
		NOTE: Higher speed ratios have been used in the past8,31. The current protocol uses 0.7:1.4 m/s for a 2:1 ratio.
		<ol>
			<li>Either randomize which leg is driven by the slower belt or consistently choose one leg (either dominant or non-dominant) as the leg that is driven by the slower belt.</li>
			<li>The belt speed differential may be introduced gradually (fast belt speed is incrementally increased and/or slow belt speed incrementally decreased over several min) or abruptly (from stopped position, belts accelerate to target speed within seconds). 
			NOTE: The way that split-belts are introduced can affect how individuals adapt, how well they transfer the adapted pattern to different walking environments, and how well they re-adapt to split-belts 24 h later27,32. Presently, most split-belt walking protocols (including the current one) introduce the split-belts abruptly.</li>
			<li>If it is anticipated that breaks will be needed (e.g., for young children, older adults, or individuals with limited mobility), add predetermined rest breaks to the protocol for all participants. Ensure that the length of these breaks is consistent; unanticipated breaks should be recorded and timed, as this may be a factor to consider in analysis33.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Catch Trial
Note: Catch trials are performed on the treadmill (tied-belts) and are used to briefly test the participant&#39;s after-effects thus far in the protocol, indicating how much they have adapted. A catch trial is a short (usually &#60; 20 s) period of tied-belt walking to quickly evaluate the development of after-effects during the split-belt adaptation period.
<ol>
	<li>Once the participant has fully adapted to split-belts (minimum of 7 min split-belt walking), briefly stop the belts and restart the treadmill with both belts running at the same speed. Perform the catch trial by starting the treadmill at the same speed as the slower belt during split-belt adaptation28 as after-effects will be largest here.
	<ol>
		<li>To maximize after-effect amplitude following split-belt adaptation at 0.7:1.4 m/s, perform the catch trial at 0.7 m/s.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To mitigate de-adaptation, end the catch trial (i.e., stop the treadmill) once the participant has taken about five strides at the desired catch trial speed (~ 10-15 s).</li>
	<li>To evaluate after-effects in catch trials performed at multiple different walking speeds (or other changes in walking contexts, e.g., forwards and backwards walking24), re-adapt the participant for at least 2 min on split-belts between each catch trial. 
	NOTE: The order of catch trials should be randomized25 and/or the first catch trial should be re-tested near the end of the adaptation period to determine if there was a systematic decrease in after-effect size with repeated switching between tied-belts (catch trials) and split-belts (re-adaptation)28.</li>
	<li>Following the last catch trial, stop the treadmill and restart it with split-belts (same configuration as adaptation - see step 3.1.2) for 2-5 min to allow the participant to re-adapt.</li>
</ol>
5. Post-adaptation - Testing After-effects During Over Ground Walking
Note: This step is optional and depends on the objectives of the experiment. In the present protocol, the objectives included assessment of generalization to over ground walking, thus a post-adaptation over ground testing period was included.
<ol>
	<li>Stop the treadmill and transfer the participant to the over ground walkway using a wheelchair, to prevent participants from taking unrecorded steps prior to reaching the recording area.</li>
	<li>Instruct the participant to walk along the over-ground walkway, as in step 2.1.
	<ol>
		<li>If a specific walking speed is desired, instruct individuals to replicate the baseline walking speed25.</li>
		<li>To completely wash-out over ground walking after-effects so that people return to their baseline coordination, have the participants perform 10-15 walking passes on a 6 m over ground walkway 
		NOTE: This has been shown to be sufficient26,27 and amounts to roughly 30 strides27. If over ground walking is not continuously recorded (e.g., several passes are taken through the recording area), there will be several steps that are not analyzed in between each over ground walking trial, as the participant slows down, turns in place, and starts walking in the other direction. The rate of de-adaptation in over ground post-adaptation (OG PA) trials should be cautiously interpreted unless the experimental set-up allows for continuous recording of over ground walking.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Post-adaptation - Testing After-effects During Treadmill Walking
NOTE: As in step 5, this step is optional and depends upon the study objectives. If an OG PA period was included, the subsequent treadmill post-adaptation period tests for the presence of treadmill after-effects after over ground after-effects have been washed-out23,26,27. If there was no OG PA period, the treadmill post-adaptation period can be used to evaluate treadmill after-effects (first 1 - 5 strides of post-adaptation) and/or treadmill de-adaptation rates22,29,34.
<ol>
	<li>If there was no OG PA, at the end of the adaptation period, stop the treadmill briefly and re-start with tied-belts. If there was an over ground walking period, use the wheelchair to transport the participant back to the stationary treadmill and re-start with tied-belts; the wheelchair is important to minimize the number of steps that are not recorded.
	<ol>
		<li>To simply measure after-effect size, record tied-belt walking for a short period (e.g., 30 s). In order to assess rates of de-adaptation, record continuous tied-belt walking for a minimum of 10 min to ensure complete wash-out of after-effects.</li>
		<li>Set the speed of tied-belts during the post-adaptation period as per the hypotheses posed, as the largest treadmill after-effects occur when the tied-belt speed matches that of the slower belt during split-belt adaptation25,28. If adaptation is performed at split-belt speeds of 0.7 and 1.4 m/s, set the tied belt speed at 0.7 m/s to observe the largest after-effects.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Numerous studies have now shown that people adapt gait coordination on a split-belt treadmill in order to restore symmetry in interlimb coordination parameters like step length and double support duration. When natural walking conditions are restored following split-belt walking, participants continue using the adapted gait pattern, leading to after-effects that have to be unlearned in order to return to normal walking coordination. Researchers primarily use adaptation rate and after-effect amplitude to quantify the abil...

A split-belt treadmill has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed or in a different direction. This device was first used over 45 years ago as a tool to study coordination between the legs (i.e., interlimb coordination) during walking1. This, and other early studies primarily used cats as an experimental model1,2,3, but insects were also studied4. The first investigations of split-belt locomotion in human infants and adults were published in 1987 and 1994, respectively5,6. These initial studies in both human and non-human animals mostly investigated short-term (i.e., immediate) adjustments in interlimb coordination to preserve stability and forward progression when the legs are driven at different speeds. A 1995 study noted that longer periods (several minutes) of split-belt walking impaired the ability of human adults to accurately perceive treadmill belt speed and make adjustments to equalize speeds on each side. This suggests that the sensorimotor mapping of walking had been recalibrated7. However, it was not until 2005 that the first detailed kinematic report of human motor adaptation over 10 minutes of split-belt treadmill walking was published8.
Motor adaptation refers to an error-driven process during which sensorimotor mappings of well-learned movements are adjusted in response to a new, predictable demand9. It is a form of motor learning that occurs over an extended practice period (minutes to hours) and results in after-effects, which are changes in the movement pattern when the demand is removed and/or conditions return to normal. For example, walking on split-belts initially causes people to walk with asymmetric interlimb coordination, resembling a limp. Over several minutes of split-belt walking, people adapt their walking coordination so that their gait becomes more symmetric. When the two belts subsequently return to the same speed (i.e. tied-belts), thus restoring normal walking conditions, people demonstrate after-effects by walking with asymmetric coordination. These after-effects must be actively de-adapted or unlearned over several minutes of tied-belt walking before normal walking coordination is restored8.
Following the 2005 Reisman et al.8 kinematic analysis of split belt walking in humans, use of the split-belt treadmill in published research has increased approximately ten-fold compared to the previous decade. Why is the split-belt treadmill becoming more popular as an experimental tool? Split-belt ambulation is clearly a laboratory task &#8211; the closest real-world analog is turning or walking in a tight circle, but the split-belt treadmill induces a much more extreme version of turning, with one leg being driven two- to four-times faster than the other. The fact that the split-belt treadmill is a highly unusual walking task offers several advantages for studying locomotor learning. First, it is novel for most people regardless of age and independent of walking experience; it is easy to screen experimental participants for novelty of split-belt walking. Second, the split-belt treadmill induces sizeable changes in interlimb coordination that are not quickly resolved. The relatively slow rates of adaptation and de-adaptation permit us to study how different training interventions can alter these rates without approaching a ceiling. Third, the kinematic8,10, kinetic11,12,13,14, electromyographic6,15,16, and perceptual7,17,18,19 modifications that occur with split-belt treadmill adaptation have been well-studied, as has the neural control of this task20,21,22. In other words, adaptations to the split-belt treadmill have been documented and replicated by several different groups, making this a well-characterized locomotor learning task.
Over the past ten years, several studies have demonstrated the task- and context-specific nature of split-belt adaptation. After-effects following split-belt adaptation are significantly reduced in amplitude if they are tested under different conditions from the training condition. For example, after-effects are smaller if the person is moved to a different environment (e.g., over ground walking23), performs a different locomotor task (e.g., backward walking or running13,24), or even walks at a speed that differs from the speed of the slower belt during adaptation25. Efforts to establish parameters governing the generalization of locomotor adaptation are ongoing.
The objective of this paper is to describe a protocol for using the split-belt treadmill to investigate human locomotor adaptation and generalization of the adapted pattern to other walking contexts (i.e., different walking speeds and environments). While the protocol described here is most directly derived from that used in Hamzey et al.25 (Figure 1a), it should be noted that this protocol was informed by a number of studies that preceded it8,23,24,26,27,28. The method was originally developed to test the hypothesis that maintaining constancy in walking speed between the treadmill and over ground environments would improve generalization of split-belt walking across these different environments25. In the protocol section below, we give instructions on how to replicate this version of the split-belt treadmill method, with notes that indicate how certain protocol steps may be modified to for different method purposes.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Split-belt treadmill</td><td>Woodway</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Codamotion CX1</td><td>Charmwood Dynamics, Ltd, Leicestershire, UK</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

using a split-belt treadmill to evaluate generalization of human locomotor adaptation

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. However, studying human locomotor learning can be challenging. During infancy and childhood, the neuromuscular system is quite immature, and it is unlikely that locomotor learning during early stages of development is governed by the same mechanisms as in adulthood. By the time humans reach maturity, they are so proficient at walking that it is difficult to come up with a sufficiently novel task to study de novo locomotor learning. The split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed, enables the study of both short- (i.e., immediate) and long-term (i.e., over minutes-days; a form of motor learning) gait modifications in response to a novel change in the walking environment. Individuals can easily be screened for previous exposure to the split-belt treadmill, thus ensuring that all experimental participants have no (or equivalent) prior experience. This paper describes a typical split-belt treadmill adaptation protocol that incorporates testing methods to quantify locomotor learning and generalization of this learning to other walking contexts. A discussion of important considerations for designing split-belt treadmill experiments follows, including factors like treadmill belt speeds, rest breaks, and distractors. Additionally, potential but understudied confounding variables (e.g., arm movements, prior experience) are considered in the discussion.

Walking on a split-belt treadmill initially causes large asymmetries in interlimb coordination. Over a period of 10 - 15 min, symmetry in many of these measures is gradually restored. Detailed descriptions of how kinematic walking parameters change over the course of split-belt treadmill adaptation have been published elsewhere8,10. This paper focuses on two measures of interlimb coordination: ste...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Split-belt Treadmill to Evaluate Generalization of Human Locomotor Adaptation at JoVE.com

Using a Split-belt Treadmill to Evaluate Generalization of Human Locomotor Adaptation

We describe a protocol for investigating human locomotor adaptation using the split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed. We specifically focus on a paradigm designed to test the generalization of adapted locomotor patterns to different walking contexts (e.g., gait speeds, walking environments).

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. ...

using-split-belt-treadmill-to-evaluate-generalization-human-locomotor

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

8.2K Views.  Stony Brook University. Beschrijven we een protocol voor het onderzoeken van menselijke locomotor aanpassing met behulp van de split-riem loopband, die heeft twee riemen die elk been met een andere snelheid rijden kunnen. We richten specifiek op een paradigma ontworpen voor het testen van de generalisatie van aangepast motorische patronen aan verschillende contexten lopen (bijvoorbeeldgait snelheden, wandelen omgevingen).

Video: Using a Split-belt Treadmill to Evaluate Generalization of Human Locomotor Adaptation

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography (EEG), Electromyography (EMG), and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Recent studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal human walking. Part of this evidence encompasses studies, including our previous work, demonstrating that gait kinematics and limb coordination during treadmill walking can be inferred from the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) with reasonably high decoding accuracies. These results provide impetus for development of non-invasive brain-machine-interface (BMI) systems for use in restoration and/or augmentation of gait- a primary goal of rehabilitation research. To date, studies examining EEG decoding of activity during gait have been limited to treadmill walking in a controlled environment. However, to be practically viable a BMI system must be applicable for use in everyday locomotor tasks such as over ground walking and turning. Here, we present a novel protocol for non-invasive collection of brain activity (EEG), muscle activity (electromyography (EMG)), and whole-body kinematic data (head, torso, and limb trajectories) during both treadmill and over ground walking tasks. By collecting these data in the uncontrolled environment insight can be gained regarding the feasibility of decoding unconstrained gait and surface EMG from scalp EEG.

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography EEG, Electromyography EMG, and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Development of an effective brain-machine-interface (BMI) system for restoration and rehabilitation of bipedal locomotion requires accurate decoding of user's intent. Here we present a novel experimental protocol and data collection technique for simultaneous non-invasive acquisition of neural activity, muscle activity, and whole-body kinematics during various locomotion tasks and conditions.

Recent  studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal  human walking. Part of this evidence  encompasses studies, ...

Kinematics and Ground Reaction Force Determination: A Demonstration Quantifying Locomotor Abilities of Young Adult, Middle-aged, and Geriatric Rats

Behavior, in its broadest definition, can be defined as the motor manifestation of physiologic processes. As such, all behaviors manifest through the motor system. In the fields of neuroscience and orthopedics, locomotion is a commonly evaluated behavior for a variety of disease models. For example, locomotor recovery after traumatic injury to the nervous system is one of the most commonly evaluated behaviors 1-3. Though locomotion can be evaluated using a variety of endpoint measurements (e.g. time taken to complete a locomotor task, etc), semiquantitative kinematic measures (e.g. ordinal rating scales (e.g. Basso Beattie and Bresnahan locomotor (BBB) rating scale, etc)) and surrogate measures of behaviour (e.g. muscle force, nerve conduction velocity, etc), only kinetics (force measurements) and kinematics (measurements of body segments in space) provide a detailed description of the strategy by which an animal is able to locomote 1. Though not new, kinematic and kinetic measurements of locomoting rodents is now more readily accessible due to the availability of commercially available equipment designed for this purpose. Importantly, however, experimenters need to be very familiar with theory of biomechanical analyses and understand the benefits and limitations of these forms of analyses prior to embarking on what will become a relatively labor-intensive study. The present paper aims to describe a method for collecting kinematic and ground reaction force data using commercially available equipment. Details of equipment and apparatus set-up, pre-training of animals, inclusion and exclusion criteria of acceptable runs, and methods for collecting the data are described. We illustrate the utility of this behavioral analysis technique by describing the kinematics and kinetics of strain-matched young adult, middle-aged, and geriatric rats.

Locomotion is often examined as a behavioural outcome in various models of disease in fields such as neuroscience and orthopedics. This video paper intends to describe a method for collecting ground reaction forces and kinematics from rats during unrestrained locomotion.

Behavior, in its broadest definition, can be defined as the motor manifestation of physiologic processes.  As such, all behaviors manifest through the ...

Neuroscience

Getting to Compliance in Forced Exercise in Rodents: A Critical Standard to Evaluate Exercise Impact in Aging-related Disorders and Disease

There is a major increase in the awareness of the positive impact of exercise on improving several disease states with neurobiological basis; these include improving cognitive function and physical performance. As a result, there is an increase in the number of animal studies employing exercise. It is argued that one intrinsic value of forced exercise is that the investigator has control over the factors that can influence the impact of exercise on behavioral outcomes, notably exercise frequency, duration, and intensity of the exercise regimen. However, compliance in forced exercise regimens may be an issue, particularly if potential confounds of employing foot-shock are to be avoided. It is also important to consider that since most cognitive and locomotor impairments strike in the aged individual, determining impact of exercise on these impairments should consider using aged rodents with a highest possible level of compliance to ensure minimal need for test subjects. Here, the pertinent steps and considerations necessary to achieve nearly 100% compliance to treadmill exercise in an aged rodent model will be presented and discussed. Notwithstanding the particular exercise regimen being employed by the investigator, our protocol should be of use to investigators that are particularly interested in the potential impact of forced exercise on aging-related impairments, including aging-related Parkinsonism and Parkinson&#8217;s disease.

Exercise may alleviate behavioral impairments associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Studies of the mechanisms underlying exercise-mediated effects have increased in disease models, but the neurobiological background accompanying these diseases, specifically aging, is likely not considered. Here, we illustrate measures to increase the likelihood of a successful exercise paradigm in aged rats.

There is a major increase in the awareness of the positive impact of exercise on improving several disease states with neurobiological basis; these ...

3D Kinematic Gait Analysis for Preclinical Studies in Rodents

The utility of three-dimensional (3D) kinematic motion analysis systems is limited in rodents. Part of the reason for this inadequacy is the use of complex algorithms and mathematical modeling that accompany 3D data collection and analysis procedures. This work provides a simple, user-friendly, step-by-step detailed methodology for 3D kinematic gait analysis during treadmill locomotion in healthy and neurotraumatic rats using a six-camera motion capture system. Also provided are details on 1) calibration of the system in an experimental set-up customized for quadrupedal locomotion, 2) data collection for treadmill locomotion in adult rats using markers positioned on all four limbs, 3) options available for video tracking and processing, and 4) basic 3D kinematic data generation and visualization and quantification of data using the built-in data collection software. Finally, it is suggested that the utility of this motion capture system be expanded to studying a variety of motor behaviors before and after neurotrauma.

Presented here is a protocol to collect and analyze three-dimensional kinematics of quadrupedal locomotion in rodents for preclinical studies.

The utility of three-dimensional (3D) kinematic motion analysis systems is limited in rodents. Part of the reason for this inadequacy is the use of ...

A Method to Study the Impact of Chemically-induced Ovarian Failure on Exercise Capacity and Cardiac Adaptation in Mice

The risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) increases in post-menopausal women, yet, the role of exercise, as a preventative measure for CVD risk in post-menopausal women has not been adequately studied. Accordingly, we investigated the impact of voluntary cage-wheel exercise and forced treadmill exercise on cardiac adaptation in menopausal mice. The most commonly used inducible model for mimicking menopause in women is the ovariectomized (OVX) rodent. However, the OVX model has a few dissimilarities from menopause in humans. In this study, we administered 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) to female mice, which accelerates ovarian failure as an alternative menopause model to study the impact of exercise in menopausal mice. VCD selectively accelerates the loss of primary and primordial follicles resulting in an endocrine state that closely mimics the natural progression from pre- to peri- to post-menopause in humans. To determine the impact of exercise on exercise capacity and cardiac adaptation in VCD-treated female mice, two methods were used. First, we exposed a group of VCD-treated and untreated mice to a voluntary cage wheel. Second, we used forced treadmill exercise to determine exercise capacity in a separate group VCD-treated and untreated mice measured as a tolerance to exercise intensity and endurance.

Two exercise paradigms were tested on a newly developed chemically induced menopausal mouse model to examine the impact of menopause on exercise capacity and cardiac adaption to exercise.

The risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) increases in post-menopausal women, yet, the role of exercise, as a preventative measure for CVD risk in ...

Medicine

Comparative Analysis of Lower Limb Kinematics between the Initial and Terminal  Phase  of 5km Treadmill Running

Running is beneficial for physical health, but it is also accompanied by many injuries. However, the main factors leading to running injury remain unexplained. This study investigated the effects of long running distance on lower-limb kinematic variables and the lower limb kinematic difference of between the initial (IR) and terminal phase (TR) of 5 km running was compared. Ten amateur runners ran on a treadmill at the speed of 10 km/h. Dynamic kinematic data was collected at the phase of IR (0.5 km) and TR (5 km), respectively. The peak angle, peak angular velocities, and range of motion were recorded in this experiment. The main results demonstrated the following: ankle eversion and knee abduction were increased at TR; ROMs of ankle and knee were increased in the frontal plane at TR than IR; a larger peak angular velocity of ankle dorsiflexion and hip interrotation were found in TR compared to IR. These changes during the long distance running may provide some specific details for exploring potential reasons of running injuries.

This study investigated the biomechanical characteristics of the lower extremity kinematic variables between the initial and terminal phase of 5 km treadmill running. The lower-limb kinematic data of 10 runners were collected using a three-dimensional motion capture system on a treadmill at the initial phase (0.5 km) and the terminal phase (5 km), respectively.

Running is beneficial for physical health, but it is also accompanied by many injuries. However, the main factors leading to running injury remain ...

Activity-based Training on a Treadmill with Spinal Cord Injured Wistar Rats

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in lasting deficits that include both mobility and a multitude of autonomic-related dysfunctions. Locomotor training (LT) on a treadmill is widely used as a rehabilitation tool in the SCI population with many benefits and improvements to daily life. We utilize this method of activity-based task-specific training (ABT) in rodents after SCI to both elucidate the mechanisms behind such improvements and to enhance and improve upon existing clinical rehabilitation protocols. Our current goal is to determine the mechanisms underlying ABT-induced improvements in urinary, bowel, and sexual function in SCI rats after a moderate to severe level of contusion. After securing each individual animal in a custom-made adjustable vest, they are secured to a versatile body weight support mechanism, lowered to a modified three-lane treadmill and assisted in step-training for 58 minutes, once a day for 10 weeks. This setup allows for the training of both quadrupedal and forelimb-only animals, alongside two different non-trained groups. Quadrupedal-trained animals with body weight support are aided by a technician present to assist in stepping with proper hind limb placement as necessary, while forelimb-only trained animals are raised at the caudal end to ensure no hind limb contact with the treadmill and no weight-bearing. One non-trained SCI group of animals is placed in a harness and rests next to the treadmill, while the other control SCI group remains in its home cage in the training room nearby. This paradigm allows for the training of multiple SCI animals at once, thus making it more time-efficient in addition to ensuring that our pre-clinical animal model mimics the clinical representation as close as possible, particularly with respect to the body weight support with manual assistance.

This protocol demonstrates our model of activity-based locomotor treadmill training for rats with spinal cord injury (SCI). Included is both quadrupedal and forelimb-only groups, in addition to two distinct types of non-trained control groups. Investigators are able to assess training effects on SCI rats using this protocol.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in lasting deficits that include both mobility and a multitude of autonomic-related dysfunctions. Locomotor training (LT) ...

Evaluation of Patients' Posture and Gait Profile After Lumbar Fusion Surgery by Video Rasterstereography and Treadmill Gait Analysis

This protocol provides guidance on how to perform high resolution video rasterstereography and treadmill gait analysis on patients after lumbar fusion surgery to obtain results about altered variables of gait and posture. These observed changes can then be correlated with the patient-reported outcome measure of pain relief. The rasterstereographic device projects lines of parallel light onto the surface of the tested subject&#39;s back. The deformation of these lines is recognized by the device. From these data, a special software then generates a 3-D profile based on the principle of triangulation. With an inaccuracy of only 0.2 mm it can measure changes in posture at very high precision. Gait and stance parameters are recorded using a treadmill equipped with an electric sensor mat that contains 10,200 miniature force sensors in the registering zone under the belt. Initial walking speed on the treadmill is 0.5 km/h. Speed is then gradually increased by increments of 0.1 km/h until each subject reaches his or her individual maximum well tolerable walking speed. At this speed, parameters are recorded during a 20 s measurement interval. Subjects are tested barefoot and without holding a handrail. Among various other parameters, stride width, step length, stance phase and foot rotation are measured. Both methods used reportedly have a high intra- and inter-observer reliability. The advantage of these highly accurate techniques is that they offer an objective and very detailed perspective on changes in the patient&#39;s posture and gait. Due to the amount of data generated, these techniques are, however, not so much suitable for everyday routine use, but rather interesting to scientifically evaluate long term alterations in posture and gait in patients like for example after lumbar fusion surgery.

Here, we present a protocol to analyze the posture and the gait of patients after lumbar fusion surgery by means of high-resolution video rasterstereography and a treadmill equipped with an integrated sensor mat. Allowing critical functional postoperative evaluation on a less subjective level may enhance accuracy and reliability of indication for surgery.

This protocol provides guidance on how to perform high resolution video rasterstereography and treadmill gait analysis on patients after lumbar fusion ...

Lower Limb Biomechanical Analysis of Healthy Participants

Biomechanical analysis techniques are useful in the study of human movement. The aim of this study was to introduce a technique for the lower limb biomechanical assessment in healthy participants using commercially available systems. Separate protocols were introduced for the gait analysis and muscle strength testing systems. To ensure maximum accuracy for gait assessment, attention should be given to the marker placements and self-paced treadmill acclimatization time. Similarly, participant positioning, a practice trial, and verbal encouragement are three critical stages in muscle strength testing. The current evidence suggests that the methodology outlined in this article may be effective for the assessment of lower limb biomechanics.

This article introduces a comprehensive experimental methodology on two of the latest technologies available to measure the lower limb biomechanics of individuals.

Biomechanical analysis techniques are useful in the study of human movement. The aim of this study was to introduce a technique for the lower limb ...

Influence of Step-Width Manipulation on Running Biomechanics

Step width is a critical factor influencing lower limb biomechanics during running, significantly affecting stability, performance, and injury risk. Understanding these effects is essential for optimizing running performance and minimizing injury risk. This study evaluated the effects of varying step widths on lower limb biomechanics at different running speeds. Thirteen healthy Chinese males (aged 20-24) participated in the study, running at speeds of 3.0 m/s and 3.7 m/s using six distinct step widths: the preferred step width and five variations (reductions of 13% and 6.5%, and increases of 6.5%, 13%, and 25%, based on leg length). Data were collected using a motion capture system and force plates and analyzed through repeated measures ANOVA and correlation tests. The results indicated that wider step widths significantly reduced peak knee abduction moments and hip adduction angles, whereas narrower step widths increased knee joint loading. These findings have important implications for clinicians and runners, suggesting that careful step width selection can help reduce injury risk and enhance running efficiency. This study contributes a new dataset that lays the foundation for future research into the relationship between step width and running biomechanics and serves as a reference for training and rehabilitation practices.

The present protocol outlines an experimental setup designed to investigate the influence of step width manipulation on running biomechanics using a motion capture system. The objective is to expand relevant datasets and examine the effects of varying step widths on the kinematic chain of the human lower limb.

Step width is a critical factor influencing lower limb biomechanics during running, significantly affecting stability, performance, and injury risk. ...

Using a Split-belt Treadmill to Evaluate Generalization of Human Locomotor Adaptation

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