The authors would like to thank Eric Fonteyn and Geert Schoofs for excellent technical assistance. This work has been supported by the KU Leuven (grant no. PF/10/018), the Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (FWO, grant no. G.485.08), and the Fondation Dormeur Vaduz.

NOTE: All steps described under sections 1 and 2 are carried out under sterile conditions in a laminar flow cabinet.
1. Maintenance of U87.CD4.hCXCR4 Cells
<ol>
	<li>Grow the cells in T75 culture flasks at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 in a humidified incubator. 
	NOTE: The in vitro cell line used in this protocol is a U87 glioblastoma cell line stably expressing cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) and human CXCR4 and has been previously described17. Cell surface expression of CD4 and CXCR4 is continuously monitored by flow cytometry and expression levels remain constant over time (~ 100% CD4+ and ~ 100% CXCR4+ cells). A detailed description of the generation of the used cell line and of the flow cytometry procedure to investigate receptor expression levels is not within the scope of this protocol.
	<ol>
		<li>Subculture cells at 80-85% confluency. Allow all reagents to reach room temperature (RT) before cell culturing.</li>
		<li>Remove the conditioned culture medium from the cells and wash the cell monolayer once with 5 mL phosphate buffered saline (PBS).</li>
		<li>Add 3 mL of 0.25% trypsin-EDTA and distribute it evenly over the cell monolayer. Then remove the excess of trypsin-EDTA and incubate up to 5 min at 37 &#176;C until cells start to detach.</li>
		<li>Add 10 mL of fresh complete growth medium (Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM) + 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) + 0.01 M HEPES + appropriate selection agents). Resuspend the cells by gently pipetting up and down. Transfer the cell suspension to a sterile 50 mL tube.</li>
		<li>Count the number of viable cells using a method of choice. In the case of U87 glioblastoma cells, viability generally reaches ~ 100%. 
		NOTE: Cell numbers can be determined in several ways. We routinely use an automated cell analysis system based on trypan blue staining (see Table of Materials) according to its standard handling procedures, but other manners should work equally well.</li>
		<li>Add 2 x 106 or 3 x 106 (viable) cells to a final volume of 25 mL fresh growth medium in a T75 culture flask and incubate at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2. 
		NOTE: If 3 x 106 cells are used the cells will reach 80-90% confluency after 2 days. If 2 x 106 cells are used, they will reach the same confluency after 3 days. The growth rate of the cells should first be determined empirically if other cell lines are used.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Seeding of the Cells for the Ca2+ Mobilization Assay
<ol>
	<li>At the day of cell passaging (day 0), coat black-walled polystyrene 96-well plates with clear bottom (see Table of Materials) with a 0.1% gelatin solution to facilitate cell attachment. 
	NOTE: Coating of the 96-well plates with gelatin might be omitted if pre-coated plates, which are commercially available (see Table of Materials), are used. It is recommended to evaluate the use of pre-coated plates instead of manual coating for each cell line under investigation before continuing with the protocol.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare gelatin solution by adding 1 g of gelatin to 100 mL PBS to obtain a 1% solution. Dilute by 10x with PBS before further use. To improve the solubility of gelatin, heat the solution to 37 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Add 100 &#181;L of 0.1% gelatin solution per well of the 96-well plate using a multichannel pipette. Incubate for 2 h at RT.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>In the meantime, prepare the cells for seeding in the coated 96-well plate.
	<ol>
		<li>Detach the cells from the culture flask, resuspend them in fresh growth medium, and count them using trypan blue staining method.</li>
		<li>Spin down the cells in a 50 mL tube for 5 min at 400 x g at RT.</li>
		<li>Resuspend the cells in fresh growth medium (DMEM + 10% FBS + 1% HEPES, no antibiotics) to obtain a cell density of 0.1 x 106 (viable) cells/mL.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Remove the gelatin solution from the black-walled plates with clear bottom by flipping over the plate and drying it on a tissue. Add 200 &#181;L/well PBS to remove excess gelatin and flip over the plate again.</li>
	<li>Dispense 200 &#181;L of the cell suspension (corresponding to 0.2 x 105 cells) per well in the gelatin-coated 96-well plate (from now one this plate will be further referred to as the &#34;measurement plate&#34;).</li>
	<li>Incubate the plate overnight at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2.</li>
</ol>
3. Loading of the Cells with a Fluorescent Ca2+ -sensitive Dye
<ol>
	<li>At day 1 perform the actual Ca2+ mobilization assay, starting with loading of the seeded cells with the fluorescent Ca2+-binding dye fluo-2 AM.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare assay buffer by adding 40 mL HEPES (1 M) to 200 mL Hank&#39;s Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS, 10x, no phenol red, no sodium bicarbonate). Add ultrapure water to obtain a final volume of 2 L and add 4 g Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). Dissolve the BSA via magnetic stirring. Adjust the pH to 7.4 (with NaOH) and filter the solution. 
		NOTE: During all following steps the same buffer, referred to as &#34;assay buffer&#34;, is used.</li>
		<li>Prepare a stock solution (4 mM in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)) of the fluorescent Ca2+-sensitive dye fluo-2 AM. Avoid excessive exposure to light. Dissolve 1 mg fluo-2 AM (molecular weight: 1,061 g/mol) in 235.6 &#181;L DMSO.</li>
		<li>Prepare a working solution of fluo-2 AM. For one 96-well assay plate mix 12.5 &#181;L of fluo-2 AM stock solution (4 mM) and 12.5 &#181;L nonionic surfactant polyol (e.g., pluronic f-127) solution (20% weight/volume in DMSO, see Table of Materials). Add 22 &#181;L of this mixture to 11 mL assay buffer in a 15 mL tube. The final concentration of fluo-2 AM is 4 &#181;M. 
		NOTE: The nonionic surfactant is used as a dispersion agent to improve the aqueous solubility of fluo-2 AM and, in consequence, to enhance cell loading. To solubilize surfactant in DMSO, heat the sample at 37 &#176;C and mix regularly to obtain a homogenous solution.</li>
		<li>Remove the growth medium from the previously seeded cells in the 96-well measurement plate by flipping over the plate and drying it on a paper towel.</li>
		<li>Add 100 &#181;L of loading dye solution per well using a multichannel pipette and incubate for 45 min at RT in the dark.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Preparation of 96-well Polypropylene Plates Containing the Chemokine Ligand CXCL12 or the Compounds under Investigation
<ol>
	<li>Obtain round bottom polypropylene (PP) 96-well plates (see Table of Materials).
	<ol>
		<li>Allow the stock solution of CXCL12 (1 mg/mL) and the stock solution of the compounds under investigation to equilibrate at RT. 
		NOTE: The stock solution of CXCL12 is prepared in ultrapure water supplemented with 0.01% Tween20 and stored at -20 &#176;C as single-use aliquots.</li>
		<li>Prepare a 5x concentrated solution of CXCL12 in assay buffer (250 ng/mL which equals 31.25 nM) and a 5x concentrated dilution of each compound (in assay buffer).</li>
		<li>Dispense the stock solutions into the appropriate 96-well plate according to a predefined plate layout. Dispense 75 &#181;L/well in the plate containing CXCL12 (the &#34;chemokine plate&#34;), dispense 50 &#181;L/well in the plate containing the compounds (the &#34;compound plate&#34;). 
		NOTE: Both compounds and CXCL12 will finally become diluted 5x upon dispensing in the measurement plate. It is also important to include negative control wells containing only assay buffer in both the compound plate as well as the chemokine plate. Also positive control wells need to be included (i.e., wells with CXCL12 in the chemokine plate, but with assay buffer in the corresponding wells of the compound plate).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Protocol Settings on the Fluorescence Microplate Reader
NOTE: The fluorescence microplate reader used in this protocol is referred to in the Table of Materials.
<ol>
	<li>Switch on the cooler unit of the fluorescence plate reader first, and then switch on the fluorescence reader itself. Let initiate for a few minutes and open the system&#39;s software.</li>
	<li>Create the assay&#39;s protocol using the drag-and-drop menu that includes the following steps:
	<ol>
		<li>In the &#34;Settings&#34; box, select &#39;Read_Mode&#39; with excitation wavelength: 470-495 nM; emission wavelength: 515-575 nM. 
		NOTE: The selected wavelengths are appropriate for use with the Ca2+-sensitive dye fluo2.</li>
		<li>Include the &#34;Mix with TF&#34; (transfer fluid) box for automatic mixing of the compounds in the compound plate, that will be put at the source 2 position of the device (see step 6.4). Select 15 &#181;L of solution in each well to be automatically aspirated and mixed three times. Adjust the height of the pipette tips at 20 &#181;L below the liquid surface. Set the speed of aspiration and dispensing at 50 &#181;L/s. 
		NOTE: The height of the pipette tips refers to the volume that is left underneath the pipette tips. For instance, if the wells of a compound plate contain 50 &#181;L, a height of 30 &#181;L corresponds to 20 &#181;L below the liquid surface. The volume of compound solution taken to mix, the speed of mixing, the position of the pipette tips during mixing, and the number of mixing cycles can all be adjusted using the software.</li>
		<li>In the &#34;Transfer Fluid&#34; box, define that 20 &#181;L of each well from the compound plate will be transferred into the measurement plate. Position the pipette tips at 20 &#181;L below the liquid surface i.e., at height 30 &#181;L during aspiration of the compounds and at height 60 &#181;L during dispensing in the measurement plate. Set the speed of aspiration at 50 &#181;L/s and the speed of dispensing at 25 &#181;L/s. 
		NOTE: The compound plate contains 50 &#181;L of solution per well (see step 4.1.3), thus a height of 30 &#181;L corresponds to a position 20 &#181;L below the liquid surface. The measurement plate will contain 80 &#181;L of assay buffer per well (see step 6.3), thus a height of 60 &#181;L corresponds to a similar position of the tips.</li>
		<li>Select the &#34;Read with TF&#34; button. During the first interval, select 60 reads (fluorescent measurements) with a read interval time of 1 s. Define that 10 reads are recorded before dispensing of the compounds into the measurement plate, and 50 reads afterwards. Define the second interval with a read interval time of 30 s and 18 reads. 
		NOTE: During this step fluorescence will be measured kinetically (at the defined time intervals) for ~ 10 min in total.</li>
		<li>Include the &#34;Wash Tips&#34; button in the protocol three times. Within each washing step, select the fluid type: fluid A (ultrapure water) or fluid B (70% ethanol), the number of wash cycles (1), the pump speed (Fast), and the number of strokes (5) during each wash step. 
		NOTE: During the first and last wash step fluid A is used, during the second wash step fluid B is used.</li>
		<li>Include the &#34;Pause Pipettor&#34; function. Set the pipettor to pause for 300 s. 
		NOTE: By including this step in the protocol, the pipettor head, which is integrated in the fluorescence plate reader device, will pause for 5 min before continuing the protocol.</li>
		<li>Include the &#34;Mix with TF&#34; box to allow automatic mixing of the CXCL12 solution in the chemokine plate, that will be positioned at the source 3 position of the device (see step 6.4). Select 15 &#181;L of solution in each well to be automatically aspirated and mixed three times. During aspiration and mixing, position the pipette tips 20 &#181;L below the liquid surface. The speed of aspiration and dispensing is set at 50 &#181;L/s. 
		NOTE: Similar as for step 5.2.2, these parameters can be adjusted.</li>
		<li>In the subsequent &#34;Transfer Fluid&#34; box, define that 25 &#181;L from each well of the chemokine plate will be transferred into the measurement plate. Position tips 20 &#181;L below the liquid surface i.e., at height 55 &#181;L during aspiration from the chemokine plate that contains 75 &#181;L/well (see step 4.1.3), and at height 80 &#181;L during dispensing in the measurement plate.Set the speed of aspiration at 50 &#181;L/s and the speed of dispensing at 25 &#181;L/s.</li>
		<li>Include the &#34;Read with TF&#34; button. During the first interval, select 145 reads with a read interval time of 1 s. Define that 5 reads are recorded before dispensing CXCL12 into the measurement plate, and 140 reads afterwards. Define the second interval with a read interval time of 6 s and select 20 reads. 
		NOTE: Taken together, throughout the entire protocol 243 reads (fluorescent measurements) are recorded: 78 at step 5.2.4 and 165 during step 5.2.9.</li>
		<li>Similar to step 5.2.5, include the &#34;Wash tips&#34; button three times in the protocol. 
		NOTE: Including this step at the end of the protocol allows that the tips can be re-used to perform another assay without needing to change the tips.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set the temperature of the device at 37 &#176;C by clicking the &#34;Set stage temperature&#34; button and selecting 37 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
6. Running the Fluorescence Assay
<ol>
	<li>After the measurement plate has incubated with loading buffer for 45 min (see step 3.1.5), remove the buffer by flipping over the plate and dry it on a tissue.</li>
	<li>Wash the seeded cells by adding 150 &#181;L/well of assay buffer and incubate for 2 min.</li>
	<li>Remove the buffer again by flipping over the plate. Add 80 &#181;L/well of assay buffer with a multichannel pipette.</li>
	<li>Put all the plates into the device at their appropriate position: the compound plate at the source 2 position, the chemokine plate at the source 3 position, and the measurement plate at the read position. Put a box of black tips at the source 1 tips position. Shut the device&#39;s door and incubate for 5 min before continuing the protocol.</li>
	<li>Select the &#34;Protocol signal test&#34; button to determine the background relative light units (RLUs) and fluorescence variance over the plate. A new window will pop up. Select &#34;Test signal&#34;. 
	NOTE: During this step, background RLUs are determined by the ICCD camera, which is integrated in the optics compartment of the fluorescence reader device. These RLUs result from the excitation of the Ca2+-sensitive dye (fluo-2) by light emitting diodes (LEDs) (LED output wavelength 470-495 nm). Values of 8,000-10,000 RLUs are well suited for this application. RLUs can, if necessary, be adapted by changing the excitation intensity (Select Exc. Intensity), or the camera gate (Select Gate Open). The variance over the plate should ideally be less than 7.5%.</li>
	<li>Select &#34;Update&#34; if background values of 8,000-10,000 RLUs are obtained. Save the main protocol by clicking the Save button. 
	NOTE: By doing so, the settings from the protocol signal test will be carried over to the main protocol.</li>
	<li>Run the assay by pushing the &#34;RUN&#34; button.</li>
</ol>
7. Data Analysis and Quality
<ol>
	<li>After the assay has finished, open the &#34;Analysis&#34; box in the system&#39;s software.
	<ol>
		<li>Go to &#34;configure corrections&#34; and choose &#34;response over base line&#34;. Define base line 1 to start at measurement 1 and end at measurement 5; the mean fluorescence will be calculated in each well between measurement 1 and 5. 
		NOTE: All further measurements from a particular well are divided by this well-specific base line 1.
		<ol>
			<li>Define base line 2 to start at measurement 78 until measurement 83 (CXCL12 is dispensed after measurement 83; again the mean fluorescence is calculated in each well between measurement 78 and 83 and this correction factor is applied to all measurements following measurement 83).</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Activate the tick box &#34;show as percentage&#34; and &#34;subtract background&#34;.</li>
		<li>Go to &#34;Configure Kinetic Reduction&#34;. To evaluate the inhibitory effect of compounds on the CXCL12-induced Ca2+ response, choose Max-Min starting from measurement 84 (i.e., the first measurement after which CXCL12 is dispensed) to 243 (i.e., the final measurement). 
		NOTE: By choosing Max-Min the difference between the minimum and maximum response over baseline between measurement 84 and measurement 243 is reported. If the Max-Min is chosen starting between measurement 11 and measurement 78, the difference between the minimum and maximum response over baseline relative to baseline 1 is reported. This value can be used to analyze the potential agonistic activity of the compounds, see Discussion).</li>
		<li>The data will be visualized in the system&#39;s software. If needed, export the raw data for additional analysis and visualization in other common analysis software packages.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Safety,+pharmacokinetics,+and+antiviral+activity+of+AMD3100,+a+selective+CXCR4+receptor+inhibitor,+in+HIV-1+infection.">Safety, pharmacokinetics, and antiviral activity of AMD3100, a selective CXCR4 receptor inhibitor, in HIV-1 infection.</a> J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 37, 1253-1262 (2004).</li><li>Schols, D., Este, J. A., Henson, G., De Clercq, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bicyclams,+a+class+of+potent+anti-HIV+agents,+are+targeted+at+the+HIV+coreceptor+fusin/CXCR-4.">Bicyclams, a class of potent anti-HIV agents, are targeted at the HIV coreceptor fusin/CXCR-4.</a> Antiviral Res. 35, 147-156 (1997).</li><li>Perry, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maraviroc:+a+review+of+its+use+in+the+management+of+CCR5-tropic+HIV-1+infection.">Maraviroc: a review of its use in the management of CCR5-tropic HIV-1 infection.</a> Drugs. 70, 1189-1213 (2010).</li><li>Mehlin, C., Crittenden, C., Andreyka, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=No-wash+dyes+for+calcium+flux+measurement.">No-wash dyes for calcium flux measurement.</a> Biotechniques. 34, 164-166 (2003).</li><li>Zhao, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CXCR4+over-expression+and+survival+in+cancer:+a+system+review+and+meta-analysis.">CXCR4 over-expression and survival in cancer: a system review and meta-analysis.</a> Oncotarget. 6, 5022-5040 (2015).</li><li>De Clercq, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+AMD3100+story:+the+path+to+the+discovery+of+a+stem+cell+mobilizer+(Mozobil).">The AMD3100 story: the path to the discovery of a stem cell mobilizer (Mozobil).</a> Biochem Pharmacol. 77, 1655-1664 (2009).</li><li>Milligan, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constitutive+activity+and+inverse+agonists+of+G+protein-coupled+receptors:+a+current+perspective.">Constitutive activity and inverse agonists of G protein-coupled receptors: a current perspective.</a> Mol Pharmacol. 64, 1271-1276 (2003).</li><li>Kenakin, T., Miller, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seven+transmembrane+receptors+as+shapeshifting+proteins:+the+impact+of+allosteric+modulation+and+functional+selectivity+on+new+drug+discovery.">Seven transmembrane receptors as shapeshifting proteins: the impact of allosteric modulation and functional selectivity on new drug discovery.</a> Pharmacol Rev. 62, 265-304 (2010).</li><li>Conn, P. J., Christopoulos, A., Lindsley, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Allosteric+modulators+of+GPCRs:+a+novel+approach+for+the+treatment+of+CNS+disorders.">Allosteric modulators of GPCRs: a novel approach for the treatment of CNS disorders.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 8, 41-54 (2009).</li><li>Burford, N. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Discovery+of+positive+allosteric+modulators+and+silent+allosteric+modulators+of+the+mu-opioid+receptor.">Discovery of positive allosteric modulators and silent allosteric modulators of the mu-opioid receptor.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 110, 10830-10835 (2013).</li><li>Bartfai, T., Wang, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Positive+allosteric+modulators+to+peptide+GPCRs:+a+promising+class+of+drugs.">Positive allosteric modulators to peptide GPCRs: a promising class of drugs.</a> Acta Pharmacol Sin. 34, 880-885 (2013).</li><li>Hatse, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+CXCL12AF647+as+a+novel+probe+for+nonradioactive+CXCL12/CXCR4+cellular+interaction+studies.">Fluorescent CXCL12AF647 as a novel probe for nonradioactive CXCL12/CXCR4 cellular interaction studies.</a> Cytometry A. 61, 178-188 (2004).</li><li>Seifert, R., Wenzel-Seifert, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constitutive+activity+of+G-protein-coupled+receptors:+cause+of+disease+and+common+property+of+wild-type+receptors.">Constitutive activity of G-protein-coupled receptors: cause of disease and common property of wild-type receptors.</a> Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 366, 381-416 (2002).</li><li>Zhang, W. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+point+mutation+that+confers+constitutive+activity+to+CXCR4+reveals+that+T140+is+an+inverse+agonist+and+that+AMD3100+and+ALX40-4C+are+weak+partial+agonists.">A point mutation that confers constitutive activity to CXCR4 reveals that T140 is an inverse agonist and that AMD3100 and ALX40-4C are weak partial agonists.</a> J Biol Chem. 277, 24515-24521 (2002).</li><li>Tamamura, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+low-molecular-weight+inhibitor+against+the+chemokine+receptor+CXCR4:+a+strong+anti-HIV+peptide+T140.">A low-molecular-weight inhibitor against the chemokine receptor CXCR4: a strong anti-HIV peptide T140.</a> Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 253, 877-882 (1998).</li><li>Wang, Z. -. x., Neote, K., Letts, G. L., Moser, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Chemokine Biology - Basic Research and Clinical Application: Volume II: Pathophysiology of Chemokines. , 61-77 (2007).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The Ca2+-mobilization assay described herein has previously been shown to be a valuable tool to identify and characterize receptor antagonists targeting CXCR417. It is, however, anticipated that this method can be more generally applied to a large group of other GPCRs that trigger a cytosolic Ca2+ release upon their activation, as illustrated for the related chemokine receptor CCR5. Whereas in the case of CCR5 exactly the same experimental conditions could be applied, several...

GPCRs are an important superfamily of cell surface proteins that activate signal transduction cascades upon extracellular ligand binding. They can be activated by a large variety of stimuli including peptides, protein hormones, biogenic amines, and lipids, which results in the initiation of diverse intracellular signaling pathways and eventually biological responses1,2. Furthermore, GPCRs are involved in many, if not all, developmental and physiological processes and many human diseases are associated with dysfunctional GPCR signaling or receptor overexpression. GPCRs are therefore amongst the most validated pharmacological targets in medicine1,3.
Typically, a GPCR drug discovery workflow starts with cellular screening assays enabling the identification of compounds such as small molecules, monoclonal antibodies, and peptides that can modulate the activity of a particular GPCR. In GPCR drug discovery many different types of assays exist to search for such compounds, most of which are compatible with mid- to high-throughput screening campaigns. The most used assays include receptor binding experiments, fluorescence or luminescence based assays detecting fluctuations in the level of so-called secondary messengers (e.g., Ca2+, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP)), phenotypic screening assays, and &#946;-arrestin recruitment assays4. The choice for a particular type of assay may depend on multiple factors, but is also determined by prior knowledge concerning the signaling properties of a given GPCR. Agonist binding to a GPCR induces a conformational change catalyzing the exchange of guanidine diphosphate (GDP) for guanidine triphosphate (GTP) on the &#945;-subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins. Subsequently the G&#945;-GTP subunit dissociates from the G&#946;&#947; subunit and both subunits will initiate further signaling pathways. Hydrolysis of the GTP-molecule and subsequent re-association of the G&#945;-GDP and G&#946;&#947; subunits will restore the G protein into its inactive conformation5,6. Based on sequence similarity of the G&#945; subunit different types of G proteins are defined (Gs, Gi, Gq, G12/13)7. Signaling via the G&#945; subunit gives rise to several typical responses such as the increase (via Gs) or decrease (via Gi) of cyclic AMP production and intracellular Ca2+ mobilization (via Gq)5,7. G&#946;&#947; subunits are also able to induce intracellular effector pathways. For instance, upon activation of Gi-coupled GPCRs, G&#946;&#947; can directly stimulate phospholipase C (PLC-&#946;) to produce inositol triphosphate (IP3) that triggers the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores7. Following receptor activation, GPCRs are phosphorylated by GPCR kinases (GRKs) which promotes interaction with &#946;-arrestins. This process terminates G protein signaling and leads to receptor desensitization and eventually internalization. &#946;-arrestins are also able to form multi-molecular complexes that can trigger other signaling pathways independent of G protein signaling8.
Within the subfamily of chemokine receptors, the Gi-coupled CXCR4 is a GPCR that has raised much interest as a promising target for drug discovery. Given its established role as a major co-receptor for human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) viral entry and infection, compounds targeting CXCR4 were initially developed as anti-HIV drug candidates9. More recently, a growing body of evidence has pointed to an important role for CXCR4 in tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis making it a well-validated therapeutic target in oncology as well10. CXCR4 is highly expressed in more than twenty types of human cancer and controls tumor cell survival, proliferation, and migration as well as tumor-related angiogenesis10. CXCR4 antagonists of different chemical classes have previously been described11,12, but only the small molecule AMD3100 is currently approved for use in the clinic as a stem cell mobilization agent used during treatment of lymphoma and myeloma patients13,14. Clinical trials are ongoing to evaluate the safety and efficacy of several other CXCR4 antagonists in different human diseases, but with a strong focus on oncology12. Given the many potential applications for CXCR4 antagonists, the search for novel compounds with improved pharmacokinetic properties, improved bioavailability, or potentially less side effects is warranted.
Herein, a kinetic fluorescence-based cellular assay primarily used to screen for compounds capable of inhibiting CXCR4 is described. The fluorescent measurement of this method is based on the transient increase of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration evoked upon CXCR4 activation by its endogenous agonist, the chemokine ligand CXCL12 (formerly known as stromal cell derived factor 1&#945; (SDF1-&#945;)), and the potential inhibition of this CXCL12-induced Ca2+ response by particular compounds. In this assay, U87 human glioblastoma cells stably expressing the human CXCR4 receptor are used. At the same time, these cells lack endogenous expression of CXCR7, a related chemokine receptor that also binds CXCL1215,16,17. CXCR7 has previously also been shown to be capable of forming heterodimers with CXCR4, thereby modulating the signaling properties of this latter receptor18. Fluctuations in the level of intracellular Ca2+ mediated by CXCR4 are monitored by loading the CXCR4+ cells with fluo-2 acetoxymethyl (AM) ester, a cell-permeable high affinity fluorescent Ca2+-binding dye. Fluo-2 AM is a single wavelength fluorescent molecule that can be excited at 490 nm while its emission fluorescence is measured at 520 nm. This emission fluorescence increases upon Ca2+ binding, with a large dynamic range between the Ca2+-bound and unbound state. The increase in fluorescent signal is transient, occurring within a time interval of a few minutes, and will decay afterwards. The peak height of the fluorescent emission further correlates with the level of receptor activation. The assay itself is performed using a fluorescence microplate reader equipped with an Intensified CCD (ICCD) camera that possesses an integrated pipetting system that allows standardization of the pipetting steps in the assay (see Table of Materials). In addition, the simultaneous measurement of the fluorescent signal in all wells of a microplate is another key advantage of the fluorescence reader that is used. During the first part of the assay the compounds under investigation (e.g., a panel of small molecules at a fixed concentration or in a dilution series) are added to the fluo-2 AM loaded CXCR4+ U87 cells followed by a ~ 10 min incubation period during which the potential agonistic effect of the compounds is continuously measured in real time. Then, the endogenous agonist (i.e., CXCL12) is added to the cells to evoke a CXCR4-mediated transient increase in the level of intracellular Ca2+. During this part of the assay the potential antagonistic activity of the tested compounds can be evaluated. A schematic overview of the assay&#39;s general workflow is presented in Figure 1.
Although this Ca2+ mobilization assay has primarily been used to identify and determine the inhibitory potency of competitive CXCR4 antagonists (i.e., compounds that prevent the endogenous agonist to bind and stimulate the receptor), it also can identify receptor agonists and, in addition, compounds that exert their function by binding at allosteric sites (i.e., sites that topographically differ from the orthosteric binding site occupied by the endogenous agonist). Examples of the latter category of compounds include allosteric agonists and PAMs and NAMs19,20. Whereas receptor-specific antagonists as well as NAMs would inhibit the CXCL12-induced Ca2+ response, PAMs would enhance this response (see also Discussion section). Although the assay described herein specifically targets CXCR4, it is anticipated that this method can be applied to other GPCRs with minimal optimization effort, at least if they signal via the release of intracellular Ca2+.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Fluo-2 AM</td><td>Abcam</td><td>ab142775</td><td>fluorescent Ca2+ sensitive dye</td></tr><tr><td>Pluronic F-127</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P2443-250G</td><td>pluronic acid</td></tr><tr><td>Gelatin</td><td>Sigma</td><td>G9391</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>AMD3100</td><td>Sigma</td><td>A5602-5 mg</td><td>specific CXCR4 antagonist</td></tr><tr><td>Maraviroc</td><td>kind gift of AnorMed</td><td></td><td>antiretroviral drug, CCR5 antagonist</td></tr><tr><td>Chemokine ligand CXCL12</td><td>PeproTech</td><td>300-28A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Chemokine ligand CCL5</td><td>PeproTech</td><td>300-06</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td><td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td><td>10270-106</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>A1933-25G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Modified Eagle&#039;s Medium (DMEM)</td><td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td><td>41965-039</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HBSS (10 x), calcium, magnesium, no phenol red</td><td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td><td>14065-049</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEPES (1 M)</td><td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td><td>15630-056</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypsin-EDTA (0,25 %), phenol red</td><td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td><td>25200-056</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Phosphate Buffered Saline (DPBS)</td><td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td><td>14190-094</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Falcon tubes, 50 mL</td><td>Greiner Bio-One</td><td>227 261</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue culture flask (T75)</td><td>Corning</td><td>353024</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Black plate, 96-well, clear bottom, with lid</td><td>Costar/Fisher Scientific</td><td>10530753</td><td>assay plate (96-well), for cell seeding</td></tr><tr><td>Polypropylene (PP) plates</td><td>Thermo Scientific (VWR)</td><td>732-2661</td><td>plates used to prepare the compound plates and chemokine plates, round bottom</td></tr><tr><td>FLIPR Tetra high throughput cellular screening system</td><td>Molecular Devices</td><td></td><td>Fluorescent plate reader with integrated pipettor head and ICCD camera</td></tr><tr><td>FLIPR Tetra LED Module 470 - 495 nm</td><td>Molecular Devices</td><td>0200-6128</td><td>Light emitting diodes for excitation of the fluorescent Ca2+ sensitive dye</td></tr><tr><td>FLIPR Tetra Emission Filter 515 - 575 nm</td><td>Molecular Devices</td><td>0200-6203</td><td>emission filter compatible with the fluorescent dye</td></tr><tr><td>FLIPR Tetra 96 Head</td><td>Molecular Devices</td><td>0310-4536</td><td>96-well pipettor head, integrated within the fluorescent plate reader</td></tr><tr><td>ScreenWorks</td><td>Molecular Devices</td><td></td><td>software package used for data analysis and visualization on the FLIPR Tetra</td></tr><tr><td>Vi-CELL</td><td>Beckman Coulter</td><td></td><td>cell viability analyzer</td></tr><tr><td>Corning CellBIND 96 Well Flat Clear Bottom Black Polystyrene Microplates, with Lid, Sterile</td><td>Corning</td><td>3340</td><td>Pre-coated 96-well assay plates that may represent an alternative for manual coating of the assay plate.</td></tr></tbody></table>

a kinetic fluorescence-based ca2+ mobilization assay to identify g protein-coupled receptor agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are of great importance to the pharmaceutical industry as they are involved in many human diseases and include well-validated targets for therapeutic intervention. Discovery of lead compounds, including small synthetic molecules, that specifically inhibit the receptor&#39;s function, is an important initial step in drug development and relies on sensitive, specific, and robust cell-based assays. Here, we describe a kinetic cellular assay with a fluorescent readout primarily designed to identify receptor-specific antagonists that inhibit the intracellular Ca2+ release evoked upon the activation of the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) by its endogenous ligand, the CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12). A key advantage of this method is that it also enables screening of compounds endowed with intrinsic agonistic properties (i.e., compounds eliciting an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration in the absence of CXCL12) or compounds modulating the receptor&#39;s function via interaction with allosteric binding sites (i.e., positive and negative allosteric modulators (PAMs and NAMs, respectively)). On the down side, autofluorescent compounds might interfere with the assay&#39;s readout, thereby hampering reliable data interpretation. Most likely this assay can be implemented, with minimal adaptations, as a generic drug discovery assay for many other GPCRs of which the activation leads to a release of intracellular Ca2+.

The effect of CXCL12 stimulation on the intracellular Ca2+ mobilization in U87.CD4.CXCR4+ and U87.CD4 cells was evaluated with the Ca2+ mobilization assay. Instead of 20 &#181;L of test compound that would normally be added during the first pipetting step of the protocol (Figure 1), assay buffer was added to the fluo-2 AM loaded U87.CD4.CXCR4+ cells in the measurement plate. During the second dispensing step, differ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators at JoVE.com

A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators

The described cellular assay is designed for the identification of CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4)-interacting agents that inhibit or stimulate, either competitively or allosterically, the intracellular Ca2+ release initiated by CXCR4 activation.

A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are of great importance to the pharmaceutical industry as they are involved in many human diseases and include ...

a-kinetic-fluorescence-based-ca2-mobilization-assay-to-identify-g

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

8.8K Views.  KU Leuven. De beschreven cellulaire assay is ontworpen voor de identificatie van CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4)-interagerende agenten die remmen of deze te stimuleren, concurrerend of allosterically, de intracellulaire Ca2 + release geïnitieerd door CXCR4 activering.

Video: A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators

Measuring G-protein-coupled Receptor Signaling via Radio-labeled GTP Binding

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of transmembrane receptors that play critical roles in normal cellular physiology and constitute a major pharmacological target for multiple indications, including analgesia, blood pressure regulation, and the treatment of psychiatric disease. Upon ligand binding, GPCRs catalyze the activation of intracellular G-proteins by stimulating the incorporation of guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Activated G-proteins then stimulate signaling pathways that elicit cellular responses. GPCR signaling can be monitored by measuring the incorporation of a radiolabeled and non-hydrolyzable form of GTP, [35S]guanosine-5&#39;-O-(3-thio)triphosphate ([35S]GTP&#947;S), into G-proteins. Unlike other methods that assess more downstream signaling processes, [35S]GTP&#947;S binding measures a proximal event in GPCR signaling and, importantly, can distinguish agonists, antagonists, and inverse agonists. The present protocol outlines a sensitive and specific method for studying GPCR signaling using crude membrane preparations of an archetypal GPCR, the &#181;-opioid receptor (MOR1). Although alternative approaches to fractionate cells and tissues exist, many are cost-prohibitive, tedious, and/or require non-standard laboratory equipment. The present method provides a simple procedure that enriches functional crude membranes. After isolating MOR1, various pharmacological properties of its agonist, [D-Ala, N-MePhe, Gly-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO), and antagonist, naloxone, were determined.

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding is one of the earliest events in G-Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR) activation. This protocol describes how to pharmacologically characterize specific GPCR-ligand interactions by monitoring the binding of the radio-labeled GTP analog, [35S]guanosine-5&#39;-O-(3-thio)triphosphate ([35S]GTP&#947;S), in response to a ligand of interest.

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of transmembrane receptors that play critical roles in normal cellular physiology and constitute a ...

Biochemistry

Drug-induced Sensitization of Adenylyl Cyclase: Assay Streamlining and Miniaturization for Small Molecule and siRNA Screening Applications

Sensitization of adenylyl cyclase (AC) signaling has been implicated in a variety of neuropsychiatric and neurologic disorders including substance abuse and Parkinson&#39;s disease. Acute activation of G&#945;i/o-linked receptors inhibits AC activity, whereas persistent activation of these receptors results in heterologous sensitization of AC and increased levels of intracellular cAMP. Previous studies have demonstrated that this enhancement of AC responsiveness is observed both in vitro and in vivo following the chronic activation of several types of G&#945;i/o-linked receptors including D2 dopamine and &#956; opioid receptors. Although heterologous sensitization of AC was first reported four decades ago, the mechanism(s) that underlie this phenomenon remain largely unknown. The lack of mechanistic data presumably reflects the complexity involved with this adaptive response, suggesting that nonbiased approaches could aid in identifying the molecular pathways involved in heterologous sensitization of AC. Previous studies have implicated kinase and Gb&#947; signaling as overlapping components that regulate the heterologous sensitization of AC. To identify unique and additional overlapping targets associated with sensitization of AC, the development and validation of a scalable cAMP sensitization assay is required for greater throughput. Previous approaches to study sensitization are generally cumbersome involving continuous cell culture maintenance as well as a complex methodology for measuring cAMP accumulation that involves multiple wash steps. Thus, the development of a robust cell-based assay that can be used for high throughput screening (HTS) in a 384&#160;well format would facilitate future studies. Using two D2 dopamine receptor cellular models (i.e.&#160;CHO-D2L and HEK-AC6/D2L), we have converted our 48-well sensitization assay (&#62;20 steps 4-5 days) to a five-step, single day assay in 384-well format. This new format is amenable to small molecule screening, and we demonstrate that this assay design can also be readily used for reverse transfection of siRNA in anticipation of targeted siRNA library screening.

Persistent activation of inhibitory G protein-coupled receptors results in sensitization of adenylyl cyclase signaling. To identify the essential molecular pathways, nonbiased approaches are necessary; however, this strategy requires the development of a scalable cell-based cAMP sensitization assay. Herein, we describe a sensitization assay for small molecule and siRNA screening.

Sensitization of adenylyl cyclase (AC) signaling has been implicated in a variety of neuropsychiatric and neurologic disorders including substance abuse ...

Bioengineering

Parallel Interrogation of &#946;-Arrestin2 Recruitment for Ligand Screening on a GPCR-Wide Scale using PRESTO-Tango Assay

As the largest and most versatile gene superfamily and mediators of a gamut of cellular signaling pathways, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent one of the most promising targets for the pharmaceutical industry. Ergo, the design, implementation, and optimization of GPCR ligand screening assays is crucial, as they represent remote-control tools for drug discovery and for manipulating GPCR pharmacology and outcomes. In the past, G-protein dependent assays typified this area of research, detecting ligand-induced events and quantifying the generation of secondary messengers. However, since the advent of functional selectivity, as well as an increased awareness of several other G protein-independent pathways and the limitations associated with G-protein dependent assays, there is a greater push towards the creation of alternative GPCR ligand screening assays. Towards this endeavor, we describe the application of one such resource, the PRESTO-Tango platform, a luciferase reporter-based system that enables the parallel and simultaneous interrogation of the human GPCR-ome, a feat which was previously considered technically and economically unfeasible. Based on a G-protein independent &#946;-arrestin2 recruitment assay, the universality of &#946;-arrestin2-mediated trafficking and signaling at GPCRs makes PRESTO-TANGO an apt tool for studying approximately 300 non-olfactory human GPCRs, including approximately 100 orphan receptors. PRESTO-Tango&#39;s sensitivity and robustness make it suitable for primary high-throughput screens using compound libraries, employed to uncover new GPCR targets for known drugs or to discover new ligands for orphan receptors.

Given that GPCRs are attractive druggable targets, GPCR ligand screening is thus indispensable for the identification of lead compounds and for deorphanization studies. Towards these efforts, we describe PRESTO-Tango, an open-source resource platform used for simultaneous profiling of transient &#946;-arrestin2 recruitment at approximately 300 GPCRs using a TEV-based reporter assay.

As the largest and most versatile gene superfamily and mediators of a gamut of cellular signaling pathways, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent ...

A "Dual-Addition" Calcium Fluorescence Assay for the High-Throughput Screening of Recombinant G Protein-Coupled Receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest superfamily of receptors and are the targets of numerous human drugs. High-throughput screening (HTS) of random small molecule libraries against GPCRs is used by the pharmaceutical industry for target-specific drug discovery. In this study, an HTS was employed to identify novel small-molecule ligands of invertebrate-specific neuropeptide GPCRs as probes for physiological studies of vectors of deadly human and veterinary pathogens.
The invertebrate-specific kinin receptor was chosen as a target because it regulates many important physiological processes in invertebrates, including diuresis, feeding, and digestion. Furthermore, the pharmacology of many invertebrate GPCRs is poorly characterized or not characterized at all; therefore, the differential pharmacology of these groups of receptors with respect to the related GPCRs in other metazoans, especially humans, adds knowledge to the structure-activity relationships of GPCRs as a superfamily. An HTS assay was developed for cells in 384-well plates for the discovery of ligands of the kinin receptor from the cattle fever tick, or southern cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus. The tick kinin receptor was stably expressed in CHO-K1 cells.
The kinin receptor, when activated by endogenous kinin neuropeptides or other small molecule agonists, triggers Ca2+ release from calcium stores into the cytoplasm. This calcium fluorescence assay combined with a &#34;dual-addition&#34; approach can detect functional agonist and antagonist &#34;hit&#34; molecules in the same assay plate. Each assay was conducted using drug plates carrying an array of 320 random small molecules. A reliable Z&#39; factor of 0.7 was obtained, and three agonist and two antagonist hit molecules were identified when the HTS was at a 2 &#181;M final concentration. The calcium fluorescence assay reported here can be adapted to screen other GPCRs that activate the Ca2+ signaling cascade.

In this work, a high-throughput, intracellular calcium fluorescence assay for 384-well plates to screen small molecule libraries on recombinant G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is described. The target, the kinin receptor from the cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, is expressed in CHO-K1 cells. This assay identifies agonists and antagonists using the same cells in one "dual-addition" assay.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest superfamily of receptors and are the targets of numerous human drugs. High-throughput screening ...

Studying Protease-Activated Receptor Ligands in Endothelial Cells

Characterizing Modulators of Protease-Activated Receptors with a Calcium Mobilization Assay Using a Plate Reader

Changes in calcium concentration in cells are rapidly monitored in a high-throughput fashion with the use of intracellular, fluorescent, calcium-binding dyes and imaging instruments that can measure fluorescent emissions from up to 1,536 wells simultaneously. However, these instruments are much more expensive and can be challenging to maintain relative to widely available plate readers that scan wells individually. Described here is an optimized plate reader assay for use with an endothelial cell line (EA.hy926) to measure the protease-activated receptor (PAR)-driven activation of G&#945;q signaling and subsequent calcium mobilization using the calcium-binding dye Fluo-4. This assay has been used to characterize a range of PAR ligands, including the allosteric PAR1-targeting anti-inflammatory "parmodulin" ligands identified in the Dockendorff lab. This protocol obviates the need for an automated liquid handler and permits the medium-throughput screening of PAR ligands in 96-well plates and should be applicable to the study of other receptors that initiate calcium mobilization.

Author Spotlight: Developing Parmodulins to Target Protease-Activated Receptors for Inflammation Control

An improved protocol for a calcium mobilization assay with endothelial cells, used to identify ligands of protease-activated receptors (PARs), has been developed. The new protocol reduces total assay time by 90-120 min and yields reproducible concentration-response curves.

Changes in calcium concentration in cells are rapidly monitored in a high-throughput fashion with the use of intracellular, fluorescent, calcium-binding ...

A Fluorescent Screening Assay for Identifying Modulators of GIRK Channels

G protein-gated inward rectifier K+ (GIRK) channels function as cellular mediators of a wide range of hormones and neurotransmitters and are expressed in the brain, heart, skeletal muscle and endocrine tissue1,2. GIRK channels become activated following the binding of ligands (neurotransmitters, hormones, drugs, etc.) to their plasma membrane-bound, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). This binding causes the stimulation of G proteins (Gi and Go) which subsequently bind to and activate the GIRK channel. Once opened the GIRK channel allows the movement of K+ out of the cell causing the resting membrane potential to become more negative. As a consequence, GIRK channel activation in neurons decreases spontaneous action potential formation and inhibits the release of excitatory neurotransmitters. In the heart, activation of the GIRK channel inhibits pacemaker activity thereby slowing the heart rate.
GIRK channels represent novel targets for the development of new therapeutic agents for the treatment neuropathic pain, drug addiction, cardiac arrhythmias and other disorders3. However, the pharmacology of these channels remains largely unexplored. Although a number of drugs including anti-arrhythmic agents, antipsychotic drugs and antidepressants block the GIRK channel, this inhibition is not selective and occurs at relatively high drug concentrations3.
Here, we describe a real-time screening assay for identifying new modulators of GIRK channels. In this assay, neuronal AtT20 cells, expressing GIRK channels, are loaded with membrane potential-sensitive fluorescent dyes such as bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid) trimethine oxonol [DiBAC4(3)] or HLB 021-152 (Figure 1). The dye molecules become strongly fluorescent following uptake into the cells (Figure 1). Treatment of the cells with GPCR ligands stimulates the GIRK channels to open. The resulting K+ efflux out of the cell causes the membrane potential to become more negative and the fluorescent signal to decrease (Figure 1). Thus, drugs that modulate K+ efflux through the GIRK channel can be assayed using a fluorescent plate reader. Unlike other ion channel screening assays, such atomic absorption spectrometry4 or radiotracer analysis5, the GIRK channel fluorescent assay provides a fast, real-time and inexpensive screening procedure.

A real-time screening procedure for identifying drugs that interact with G protein-gated inward rectifier K+ (GIRK) channels is described. The assay utilizes membrane potential-sensitive fluorescent dyes to measure GIRK channel activity. This technique is adaptable for use on a number of cell lines.

G protein-gated inward rectifier K+ (GIRK) channels function as cellular mediators of a wide range of hormones and neurotransmitters and are expressed in ...

Biology

Characterization of G Protein-coupled Receptors by a Fluorescence-based Calcium Mobilization Assay

For more than 20 years, reverse pharmacology has been the preeminent strategy to discover the activating ligands of orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The onset of a reverse pharmacology assay is the cloning and subsequent transfection of a GPCR of interest in a cellular expression system. The heterologous expressed receptor is then challenged with a compound library of candidate ligands to identify the receptor-activating ligand(s). Receptor activation can be assessed by measuring changes in concentration of second messenger reporter molecules, like calcium or cAMP. The fluorescence-based calcium mobilization assay described here is a frequently used medium-throughput reverse pharmacology assay. The orphan GPCR is transiently expressed in human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells and a promiscuous G&#945;16 construct is co-transfected. Following ligand binding, activation of the G&#945;16 subunit induces the release of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum. Prior to ligand screening, the receptor-expressing cells are loaded with a fluorescent calcium indicator, Fluo-4 acetoxymethyl. The fluorescent signal of Fluo-4 is negligible in cells under resting conditions, but can be amplified more than a 100-fold upon the interaction with calcium ions that are released after receptor activation. The described technique does not require the time-consuming establishment of stably transfected cell lines in which the transfected genetic material is integrated into the host cell genome. Instead, a transient transfection, generating temporary expression of the target gene, is sufficient to perform the screening assay. The setup allows medium-throughput screening of hundreds of compounds. Co-transfection of the promiscuous G&#945;16, which couples to most GPCRs, allows the intracellular signaling pathway to be redirected towards the release of calcium, regardless of the native signaling pathway in endogenous settings. The HEK293T cells are easy to handle and have proven their efficacy throughout the years in receptor deorphanization assays. However, optimization of the assay for specific receptors may remain necessary.

The here described fluorescence-based calcium mobilization assay is a medium-throughput reverse pharmacology screening system for the identification of functionally activating ligand(s) of orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).

For more than 20 years, reverse pharmacology has been the preeminent strategy to discover the activating ligands of orphan G protein-coupled receptors ...

G Protein-selective GPCR Conformations Measured Using FRET Sensors in a Live Cell Suspension Fluorometer Assay

F&#1255;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based studies have become increasingly common in the investigation of GPCR signaling. Our research group developed an intra-molecular FRET sensor to detect the interaction between G&#945; subunits and GPCRs in live cells following agonist stimulation. Here, we detail the protocol for detecting changes in FRET between the &#946;2-adrenergic receptor and the G&#945;s C-terminus peptide upon treatment with 100 &#181;M isoproterenol hydrochloride as previously characterized1. Our FRET sensor is a single polypeptide consisting serially of a full-length GPCR, a FRET acceptor fluorophore (mCitrine), an ER/K SPASM (systematic protein affinity strength modulation) linker, a FRET donor fluorophore (mCerulean), and a G&#945; C-terminal peptide. This protocol will detail cell preparation, transfection conditions, equipment setup, assay execution, and data analysis. This experimental design detects small changes in FRET indicative of protein-protein interactions, and can also be used to compare the strength of interaction across ligands and GPCR-G protein pairings. To enhance the signal-to-noise in our measurements, this protocol requires heightened precision in all steps, and is presented here to enable reproducible execution.

Simple methods to detect the selective activation of G proteins by G protein-coupled receptors remain an outstanding challenge in cell signaling. Here, F&#1255;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensors have been developed by pairwise tethering a GPCR to G protein peptides to probe conformational changes at controlled concentrations in live cells.

F&#1255;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based studies have become increasingly common in the investigation of GPCR signaling. Our research group ...

Real-time In Vivo Recording of Arabidopsis Calcium Signals During Insect Feeding Using a Fluorescent Biosensor

Calcium ions are predicted to be key signaling entities during biotic interactions, with calcium signaling forming an established part of the plant defense response to microbial elicitors and to wounding caused by chewing insects, eliciting systemic calcium signals in plants. However, the role of calcium in vivo during biotic stress is still unclear. This protocol describes the use of a genetically-encoded calcium sensor to detect calcium signals in plants during feeding by a hemipteran pest. Hemipterans such as aphids pierce a small number of cells with specialized, elongated sucking mouthparts, making them the ideal tool to study calcium dynamics when a plant is faced with a biotic stress, which is distinct from a wounding response. In addition, fluorescent biosensors are revolutionizing the measurement of signaling molecules in vivo in both animals and plants. Expressing a GFP-based calcium biosensor, GCaMP3, in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana allows for the real-time imaging of plant calcium dynamics during insect feeding, with a high spatial and temporal resolution. A repeatable and robust assay has been developed using the fluorescence microscopy of detached GCaMP3 leaves, allowing for the continuous measurement of cytosolic calcium dynamics before, during, and after insect feeding. This reveals a highly-localized rapid calcium elevation around the aphid feeding site that occurs within a few minutes. The protocol can be adapted to other biotic stresses, such as additional insect species, while the use of Arabidopsis thaliana allows for the rapid generation of mutants to facilitate the molecular analysis of the phenomenon.

Real-time In Vivo Recording of Arabidopsis Calcium Signals During Insect Feeding Using a Fluorescent Biosensor

This protocol outlines a simple method for analyzing calcium signals in plants generated by feeding hemipteran insects, such as aphids. Arabidopsis thaliana transformed with the GFP calcium biosensor GCaMP3 allow for the real-time in vivo imaging of calcium dynamics with a high temporal and spatial resolution.

Calcium ions are predicted to be key signaling entities during biotic interactions, with calcium signaling forming an established part of the plant ...

A Flow Cytometry-based Assay to Identify Compounds That Disrupt Binding of Fluorescently-labeled CXC Chemokine Ligand 12 to CXC Chemokine Receptor 4

Pharmacological targeting of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is of great importance to human health, as dysfunctional GPCR-mediated signaling contributes to the progression of many diseases. The ligand/receptor pair CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12)/CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) has raised significant clinical interest, for instance as a potential target for the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases. Small molecules as well as therapeutic antibodies that specifically target CXCR4 and inhibit the receptor&#39;s function are therefore considered to be valuable pharmacological tools. Here, a flow cytometry-based cellular assay that allows identification of compounds (e.g., small molecules) that abrogate CXCL12 binding to CXCR4, is described. Essentially, the assay relies on the competition for receptor binding between a fixed amount of fluorescently labeled CXCL12, the natural chemokine agonist for CXCR4, and unlabeled compounds. Hence, the undesirable use of radioactively labeled probes is avoided in this assay. In addition, living cells are used as the source of receptor (CXCR4) instead of cell membrane preparations. This allows easy adaptation of the assay to a plate format, which increases the throughput. This assay has been shown to be a valuable generic drug discovery assay to identify CXCR4-targeting compounds. The protocol can likely be adapted to other GPCRs, at least if fluorescently labeled ligands are available or can be generated. Prior knowledge concerning the intracellular signaling pathways that are induced upon activation of these GPCRs, is not required.

A flow cytometry-based cellular binding assay is described that is primarily used as a screening tool to identify compounds that inhibit the binding of a fluorescently labeled CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) to the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4).

A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca²⁺ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators

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