Name: a kinetic fluorescence-based ca2+ mobilization assay to identify g protein-coupled receptor agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators
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Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators at JoVE.com

The authors would like to thank Eric Fonteyn and Geert Schoofs for excellent technical assistance. This work has been supported by the KU Leuven (grant no. PF/10/018), the Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (FWO, grant no. G.485.08), and the Fondation Dormeur Vaduz.

NOTE: All steps described under sections 1 and 2 are carried out under sterile conditions in a laminar flow cabinet.
1. Maintenance of U87.CD4.hCXCR4 Cells
<ol>
	<li>Grow the cells in T75 culture flasks at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 in a humidified incubator. 
	NOTE: The in vitro cell line used in this protocol is a U87 glioblastoma cell line stably expressing cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) and human CXCR4 and has been previously described17. C...

<ol>
	<li>Pierce, K. L., Premont, R. T., Lefkowitz, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seven-transmembrane+receptors.">Seven-transmembrane receptors.</a> Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 3, 639-650 (2002).</li><li>Fredriksson, R., Lagerstrom, M. C., Lundin, L. G., Schioth, H. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+G-protein-coupled+receptors+in+the+human+genome+form+five+main+families.+Phylogenetic+analysis,+paralogon+groups,+and+fingerprints.">The G-protein-coupled receptors in the human genome form five main families. Phylogenetic analysis, paralogon groups, and fingerprints.</a> Mol Pharmacol. 63, 1256-1272 (2003).</li><li>Lappano, R., Maggiolini, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=G+protein-coupled+receptors:+novel+targets+for+drug+discovery+in+cancer.">G protein-coupled receptors: novel targets for drug discovery in cancer.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 10, 47-60 (2011).</li><li>Zhang, R., Xie, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tools+for+GPCR+drug+discovery.">Tools for GPCR drug discovery.</a> Acta Pharmacol Sin. 33, 372-384 (2012).</li><li>Milligan, G., Kostenis, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterotrimeric+G-proteins:+a+short+history.">Heterotrimeric G-proteins: a short history.</a> Br J Pharmacol. 147, S46-S55 (2006).</li><li>Tuteja, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling+through+G+protein+coupled+receptors.">Signaling through G protein coupled receptors.</a> Plant Signal Behav. 4, 942-947 (2009).</li><li>Neves, S. R., Ram, P. T., Iyengar, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=G+protein+pathways.">G protein pathways.</a> Science. 296, 1636-1639 (2002).</li><li>Smith, J. S., Rajagopal, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+beta-Arrestins:+Multifunctional+Regulators+of+G+Protein-coupled+Receptors.">The beta-Arrestins: Multifunctional Regulators of G Protein-coupled Receptors.</a> J Biol Chem. 291, 8969-8977 (2016).</li><li>Zhang, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Discovery+of+non-peptide+small+molecular+CXCR4+antagonists+as+anti-HIV+agents:+Recent+advances+and+future+opportunities.">Discovery of non-peptide small molecular CXCR4 antagonists as anti-HIV agents: Recent advances and future opportunities.</a> Eur J Med Chem. 114, 65-78 (2016).</li><li>Chatterjee, S., Behnam Azad, B., Nimmagadda, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+intricate+role+of+CXCR4+in+cancer.">The intricate role of CXCR4 in cancer.</a> Adv Cancer Res. 124, 31-82 (2014).</li><li>Debnath, B., Xu, S., Grande, F., Garofalo, A., Neamati, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Small+molecule+inhibitors+of+CXCR4.">Small molecule inhibitors of CXCR4.</a> Theranostics. 3, 47-75 (2013).</li><li>Tsou, L. 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F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phase+III+prospective+randomized+double-blind+placebo-controlled+trial+of+plerixafor+plus+granulocyte+colony-stimulating+factor+compared+with+placebo+plus+granulocyte+colony-stimulating+factor+for+autologous+stem-cell+mobilization+and+transplantation+for+patients+with+non-Hodgkin's+lymphoma.">Phase III prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of plerixafor plus granulocyte colony-stimulating factor compared with placebo plus granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for autologous stem-cell mobilization and transplantation for patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.</a> J Clin Oncol. 27, 4767-4773 (2009).</li><li>Balabanian, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+chemokine+SDF-1/CXCL12+binds+to+and+signals+through+the+orphan+receptor+RDC1+in+T+lymphocytes.">The chemokine SDF-1/CXCL12 binds to and signals through the orphan receptor RDC1 in T lymphocytes.</a> J Biol Chem. 280, 35760-35766 (2005).</li><li>Burns, J. 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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emerging+paradigms+in+GPCR+allostery:+implications+for+drug+discovery.">Emerging paradigms in GPCR allostery: implications for drug discovery.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 12, 630-644 (2013).</li><li>Burford, N. T., Watson, J., Bertekap, R., Alt, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strategies+for+the+identification+of+allosteric+modulators+of+G-protein-coupled+receptors.">Strategies for the identification of allosteric modulators of G-protein-coupled receptors.</a> Biochem Pharmacol. 81, 691-702 (2011).</li><li>Hendrix, C. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Safety,+pharmacokinetics,+and+antiviral+activity+of+AMD3100,+a+selective+CXCR4+receptor+inhibitor,+in+HIV-1+infection.">Safety, pharmacokinetics, and antiviral activity of AMD3100, a selective CXCR4 receptor inhibitor, in HIV-1 infection.</a> J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 37, 1253-1262 (2004).</li><li>Schols, D., Este, J. A., Henson, G., De Clercq, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bicyclams,+a+class+of+potent+anti-HIV+agents,+are+targeted+at+the+HIV+coreceptor+fusin/CXCR-4.">Bicyclams, a class of potent anti-HIV agents, are targeted at the HIV coreceptor fusin/CXCR-4.</a> Antiviral Res. 35, 147-156 (1997).</li><li>Perry, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maraviroc:+a+review+of+its+use+in+the+management+of+CCR5-tropic+HIV-1+infection.">Maraviroc: a review of its use in the management of CCR5-tropic HIV-1 infection.</a> Drugs. 70, 1189-1213 (2010).</li><li>Mehlin, C., Crittenden, C., Andreyka, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=No-wash+dyes+for+calcium+flux+measurement.">No-wash dyes for calcium flux measurement.</a> Biotechniques. 34, 164-166 (2003).</li><li>Zhao, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CXCR4+over-expression+and+survival+in+cancer:+a+system+review+and+meta-analysis.">CXCR4 over-expression and survival in cancer: a system review and meta-analysis.</a> Oncotarget. 6, 5022-5040 (2015).</li><li>De Clercq, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+AMD3100+story:+the+path+to+the+discovery+of+a+stem+cell+mobilizer+(Mozobil).">The AMD3100 story: the path to the discovery of a stem cell mobilizer (Mozobil).</a> Biochem Pharmacol. 77, 1655-1664 (2009).</li><li>Milligan, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constitutive+activity+and+inverse+agonists+of+G+protein-coupled+receptors:+a+current+perspective.">Constitutive activity and inverse agonists of G protein-coupled receptors: a current perspective.</a> Mol Pharmacol. 64, 1271-1276 (2003).</li><li>Kenakin, T., Miller, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seven+transmembrane+receptors+as+shapeshifting+proteins:+the+impact+of+allosteric+modulation+and+functional+selectivity+on+new+drug+discovery.">Seven transmembrane receptors as shapeshifting proteins: the impact of allosteric modulation and functional selectivity on new drug discovery.</a> Pharmacol Rev. 62, 265-304 (2010).</li><li>Conn, P. J., Christopoulos, A., Lindsley, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Allosteric+modulators+of+GPCRs:+a+novel+approach+for+the+treatment+of+CNS+disorders.">Allosteric modulators of GPCRs: a novel approach for the treatment of CNS disorders.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 8, 41-54 (2009).</li><li>Burford, N. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Discovery+of+positive+allosteric+modulators+and+silent+allosteric+modulators+of+the+mu-opioid+receptor.">Discovery of positive allosteric modulators and silent allosteric modulators of the mu-opioid receptor.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 110, 10830-10835 (2013).</li><li>Bartfai, T., Wang, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Positive+allosteric+modulators+to+peptide+GPCRs:+a+promising+class+of+drugs.">Positive allosteric modulators to peptide GPCRs: a promising class of drugs.</a> Acta Pharmacol Sin. 34, 880-885 (2013).</li><li>Hatse, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+CXCL12AF647+as+a+novel+probe+for+nonradioactive+CXCL12/CXCR4+cellular+interaction+studies.">Fluorescent CXCL12AF647 as a novel probe for nonradioactive CXCL12/CXCR4 cellular interaction studies.</a> Cytometry A. 61, 178-188 (2004).</li><li>Seifert, R., Wenzel-Seifert, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constitutive+activity+of+G-protein-coupled+receptors:+cause+of+disease+and+common+property+of+wild-type+receptors.">Constitutive activity of G-protein-coupled receptors: cause of disease and common property of wild-type receptors.</a> Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 366, 381-416 (2002).</li><li>Zhang, W. 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The Ca2+-mobilization assay described herein has previously been shown to be a valuable tool to identify and characterize receptor antagonists targeting CXCR417. It is, however, anticipated that this method can be more generally applied to a large group of other GPCRs that trigger a cytosolic Ca2+ release upon their activation, as illustrated for the related chemokine receptor CCR5. Whereas in the case of CCR5 exactly the same experimental conditions could be applied, several...

GPCRs are an important superfamily of cell surface proteins that activate signal transduction cascades upon extracellular ligand binding. They can be activated by a large variety of stimuli including peptides, protein hormones, biogenic amines, and lipids, which results in the initiation of diverse intracellular signaling pathways and eventually biological responses1,2. Furthermore, GPCRs are involved in many, if not all, developmental and physiological processes and many human diseases are associated with dysfunctional GPCR signaling or receptor overexpression. GPCRs are therefore amongst the most validated pharmacological targets in medicine1,3.
Typically, a GPCR drug discovery workflow starts with cellular screening assays enabling the identification of compounds such as small molecules, monoclonal antibodies, and peptides that can modulate the activity of a particular GPCR. In GPCR drug discovery many different types of assays exist to search for such compounds, most of which are compatible with mid- to high-throughput screening campaigns. The most used assays include receptor binding experiments, fluorescence or luminescence based assays detecting fluctuations in the level of so-called secondary messengers (e.g., Ca2+, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP)), phenotypic screening assays, and &#946;-arrestin recruitment assays4. The choice for a particular type of assay may depend on multiple factors, but is also determined by prior knowledge concerning the signaling properties of a given GPCR. Agonist binding to a GPCR induces a conformational change catalyzing the exchange of guanidine diphosphate (GDP) for guanidine triphosphate (GTP) on the &#945;-subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins. Subsequently the G&#945;-GTP subunit dissociates from the G&#946;&#947; subunit and both subunits will initiate further signaling pathways. Hydrolysis of the GTP-molecule and subsequent re-association of the G&#945;-GDP and G&#946;&#947; subunits will restore the G protein into its inactive conformation5,6. Based on sequence similarity of the G&#945; subunit different types of G proteins are defined (Gs, Gi, Gq, G12/13)7. Signaling via the G&#945; subunit gives rise to several typical responses such as the increase (via Gs) or decrease (via Gi) of cyclic AMP production and intracellular Ca2+ mobilization (via Gq)5,7. G&#946;&#947; subunits are also able to induce intracellular effector pathways. For instance, upon activation of Gi-coupled GPCRs, G&#946;&#947; can directly stimulate phospholipase C (PLC-&#946;) to produce inositol triphosphate (IP3) that triggers the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores7. Following receptor activation, GPCRs are phosphorylated by GPCR kinases (GRKs) which promotes interaction with &#946;-arrestins. This process terminates G protein signaling and leads to receptor desensitization and eventually internalization. &#946;-arrestins are also able to form multi-molecular complexes that can trigger other signaling pathways independent of G protein signaling8.
Within the subfamily of chemokine receptors, the Gi-coupled CXCR4 is a GPCR that has raised much interest as a promising target for drug discovery. Given its established role as a major co-receptor for human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) viral entry and infection, compounds targeting CXCR4 were initially developed as anti-HIV drug candidates9. More recently, a growing body of evidence has pointed to an important role for CXCR4 in tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis making it a well-validated therapeutic target in oncology as well10. CXCR4 is highly expressed in more than twenty types of human cancer and controls tumor cell survival, proliferation, and migration as well as tumor-related angiogenesis10. CXCR4 antagonists of different chemical classes have previously been described11,12, but only the small molecule AMD3100 is currently approved for use in the clinic as a stem cell mobilization agent used during treatment of lymphoma and myeloma patients13,14. Clinical trials are ongoing to evaluate the safety and efficacy of several other CXCR4 antagonists in different human diseases, but with a strong focus on oncology12. Given the many potential applications for CXCR4 antagonists, the search for novel compounds with improved pharmacokinetic properties, improved bioavailability, or potentially less side effects is warranted.
Herein, a kinetic fluorescence-based cellular assay primarily used to screen for compounds capable of inhibiting CXCR4 is described. The fluorescent measurement of this method is based on the transient increase of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration evoked upon CXCR4 activation by its endogenous agonist, the chemokine ligand CXCL12 (formerly known as stromal cell derived factor 1&#945; (SDF1-&#945;)), and the potential inhibition of this CXCL12-induced Ca2+ response by particular compounds. In this assay, U87 human glioblastoma cells stably expressing the human CXCR4 receptor are used. At the same time, these cells lack endogenous expression of CXCR7, a related chemokine receptor that also binds CXCL1215,16,17. CXCR7 has previously also been shown to be capable of forming heterodimers with CXCR4, thereby modulating the signaling properties of this latter receptor18. Fluctuations in the level of intracellular Ca2+ mediated by CXCR4 are monitored by loading the CXCR4+ cells with fluo-2 acetoxymethyl (AM) ester, a cell-permeable high affinity fluorescent Ca2+-binding dye. Fluo-2 AM is a single wavelength fluorescent molecule that can be excited at 490 nm while its emission fluorescence is measured at 520 nm. This emission fluorescence increases upon Ca2+ binding, with a large dynamic range between the Ca2+-bound and unbound state. The increase in fluorescent signal is transient, occurring within a time interval of a few minutes, and will decay afterwards. The peak height of the fluorescent emission further correlates with the level of receptor activation. The assay itself is performed using a fluorescence microplate reader equipped with an Intensified CCD (ICCD) camera that possesses an integrated pipetting system that allows standardization of the pipetting steps in the assay (see Table of Materials). In addition, the simultaneous measurement of the fluorescent signal in all wells of a microplate is another key advantage of the fluorescence reader that is used. During the first part of the assay the compounds under investigation (e.g., a panel of small molecules at a fixed concentration or in a dilution series) are added to the fluo-2 AM loaded CXCR4+ U87 cells followed by a ~ 10 min incubation period during which the potential agonistic effect of the compounds is continuously measured in real time. Then, the endogenous agonist (i.e., CXCL12) is added to the cells to evoke a CXCR4-mediated transient increase in the level of intracellular Ca2+. During this part of the assay the potential antagonistic activity of the tested compounds can be evaluated. A schematic overview of the assay&#39;s general workflow is presented in Figure 1.
Although this Ca2+ mobilization assay has primarily been used to identify and determine the inhibitory potency of competitive CXCR4 antagonists (i.e., compounds that prevent the endogenous agonist to bind and stimulate the receptor), it also can identify receptor agonists and, in addition, compounds that exert their function by binding at allosteric sites (i.e., sites that topographically differ from the orthosteric binding site occupied by the endogenous agonist). Examples of the latter category of compounds include allosteric agonists and PAMs and NAMs19,20. Whereas receptor-specific antagonists as well as NAMs would inhibit the CXCL12-induced Ca2+ response, PAMs would enhance this response (see also Discussion section). Although the assay described herein specifically targets CXCR4, it is anticipated that this method can be applied to other GPCRs with minimal optimization effort, at least if they signal via the release of intracellular Ca2+.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluo-2 AM</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab142775</td>
			<td>fluorescent Ca2+ sensitive dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pluronic F-127</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P2443-250G</td>
			<td>pluronic acid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gelatin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G9391</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AMD3100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A5602-5 mg</td>
			<td>specific CXCR4 antagonist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Maraviroc</td>
			<td>kind gift of AnorMed</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>antiretroviral drug, CCR5 antagonist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemokine ligand CXCL12</td>
			<td>PeproTech</td>
			<td>300-28A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemokine ligand CCL5</td>
			<td>PeproTech</td>
			<td>300-06</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td>10270-106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A1933-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM)</td>
			<td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td>41965-039</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HBSS (10 x), calcium, magnesium, no phenol red</td>
			<td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td>14065-049</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES (1 M)</td>
			<td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td>15630-056</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA (0,25 %), phenol red</td>
			<td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td>25200-056</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Phosphate Buffered Saline (DPBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td>14190-094</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon tubes, 50 mL</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio-One</td>
			<td>227 261</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue culture flask (T75)</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>353024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Black plate, 96-well, clear bottom, with lid</td>
			<td>Costar/Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10530753</td>
			<td>assay plate (96-well), for cell seeding</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polypropylene (PP) plates</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific (VWR)</td>
			<td>732-2661</td>
			<td>plates used to prepare the compound plates and chemokine plates, round bottom</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FLIPR Tetra high throughput cellular screening system</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Fluorescent plate reader with integrated pipettor head and ICCD camera</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FLIPR Tetra LED Module 470 - 495 nm</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>0200-6128</td>
			<td>Light emitting diodes for excitation of the fluorescent Ca2+ sensitive dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FLIPR Tetra Emission Filter 515 - 575 nm</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>0200-6203</td>
			<td>emission filter compatible with the fluorescent dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FLIPR Tetra 96 Head</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>0310-4536</td>
			<td>96-well pipettor head, integrated within the fluorescent plate reader</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ScreenWorks</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>software package used for data analysis and visualization on the FLIPR Tetra</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vi-CELL</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>cell viability analyzer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning CellBIND 96 Well Flat Clear Bottom Black Polystyrene Microplates, with Lid, Sterile</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3340</td>
			<td>Pre-coated 96-well assay plates that may represent an alternative for manual coating of the assay plate.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a kinetic fluorescence-based ca2+ mobilization assay to identify g protein-coupled receptor agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are of great importance to the pharmaceutical industry as they are involved in many human diseases and include well-validated targets for therapeutic intervention. Discovery of lead compounds, including small synthetic molecules, that specifically inhibit the receptor&#39;s function, is an important initial step in drug development and relies on sensitive, specific, and robust cell-based assays. Here, we describe a kinetic cellular assay with a fluorescent readout primarily designed to identify receptor-specific antagonists that inhibit the intracellular Ca2+ release evoked upon the activation of the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) by its endogenous ligand, the CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12). A key advantage of this method is that it also enables screening of compounds endowed with intrinsic agonistic properties (i.e., compounds eliciting an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration in the absence of CXCL12) or compounds modulating the receptor&#39;s function via interaction with allosteric binding sites (i.e., positive and negative allosteric modulators (PAMs and NAMs, respectively)). On the down side, autofluorescent compounds might interfere with the assay&#39;s readout, thereby hampering reliable data interpretation. Most likely this assay can be implemented, with minimal adaptations, as a generic drug discovery assay for many other GPCRs of which the activation leads to a release of intracellular Ca2+.

The effect of CXCL12 stimulation on the intracellular Ca2+ mobilization in U87.CD4.CXCR4+ and U87.CD4 cells was evaluated with the Ca2+ mobilization assay. Instead of 20 &#181;L of test compound that would normally be added during the first pipetting step of the protocol (Figure 1), assay buffer was added to the fluo-2 AM loaded U87.CD4.CXCR4+ cells in the measurement plate. During the second dispensing step, differ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators at JoVE.com

A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators

The described cellular assay is designed for the identification of CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4)-interacting agents that inhibit or stimulate, either competitively or allosterically, the intracellular Ca2+ release initiated by CXCR4 activation.

A Kinetic Fluorescence-based Ca2+ Mobilization Assay to Identify G Protein-coupled Receptor Agonists, Antagonists, and Allosteric Modulators

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are of great importance to the pharmaceutical industry as they are involved in many human diseases and include ...

The overall goal of this cell-based assay is to identify and characterize molecules capable of stimulating or inhibiting G protein-coupled receptor-mediated intracellular calcium mobilization. This method can be a valuable assay for G protein-coupled receptor drug discovery because it can be used to screen for molecules that modify receptor-mediated intracellular calcium bodies. The main advantage of this technique is that it allows molecules with agonistic or antagonistic properties to be identified within the same assay.This assay may help in the discovery of novel drug candidates that act on G protein-coupled receptors promising therapeutic targets that play a role in many human diseases. On the day of cell passaging, coat each well of a black walled polystyrene 96-well plate with clear bottoms with 100 microliters of 0.1%gelatin solution and incubate the plates for two hours at room temperature. While the gelatin is solidifying, use a trypsin EDTA solution to lift the cells of interest from the bottom of their culture flask, resuspending the cells in fresh growth medium in a 50 milliliter conical tube once they have detached.After counting, collect the cells by centrifugation and resuspend the pellet in fresh growth medium to a one times 10 to the fifth viable cells per milliliter concentration. When the plates are ready, discard any excess gelatin solution and dry the plates on a lab tissue. Then wash the wells with 200 microliters of PBS and replace the wash with 200 microliters of cells per well for an overnight incubation at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide.The next morning, tap the plate to discard the growth medium from the wells and dry the plate upside on a paper towel. Then label the cells in each well with 100 microliters of loading dye solution per well and incubate the plate for 45 minutes in the dark at room temperature. While the cells are incubating, add 75 microliters of CXCL12 per well to the chemokine plate and 50 microliters of the compound of interest to each well of the compound plate.Next, turn on the cooler unit of the fluorescence plate reader followed by the plate reader itself. After allowing the system a few minutes to initiate, open the plate reader software. To set up the assay protocol, under the settings tab select read mode and the appropriate excitation and emission wavelengths for the loading dye.Select the mix with transfer fluid tab for automatic mixing of the compounds in the compound plate. In the transfer fluid tab, set 20 microliters of each well from the compound plate to be transferred into the measurement plate and position the pipette tips at 20 microliters below the liquid surface. Set the speed of aspiration to 50 microliters per second and the speed of dispensing to 25 microliters per second and click read with transfer fluid.During the first interval, select 60 reads with a read interval time of one second with 10 reads to be recorded before the compounds are dispensed into the measurement plate and 50 reads to be completed after. Set the second interval with a read interval time of 30 seconds and 18 reads. Select three tip washes for the protocol, setting each wash step to include the appropriate wash fluid, one wash cycle, a fast pump speed, and five strokes per wash.Use the pause pipettor function to include the pipettor pause of 300 seconds and use the mix with transfer fluid setting to allow automatic mixing of the CXCL12 solution within the chemokine plate. In the subsequent transfer fluid tab, set 25 microliters from each well of the chemokine plate to be transferred to the measurement plate and position the tips 20 microliters below the liquid surface. Set the aspiration speed to 50 microliters per second and the dispensing speed to 25 microliters per second.Use the read with transfer fluid button to set the first interval to include 145 reads with a read interval time of one second. Set the second interval to a read interval time of six seconds and 20 reads. Select three more wash tip cycles.Then click set stage temperature and set the device temperature to 37 degrees Celsius. At the end of the loading dye incubation, discard the buffer from the measurement plate and dry the plate on a lab tissue. Wash the cells with 150 microliters per well of assay buffer replacing the buffer with 80 microliters of assay buffer after two minutes.Place the measurement plate in the read position, the compound plate at the source two position, the chemokine plate at the source three position, and a box of black tips at the source one position. Close the device and click protocol signal test to determine the background relative light units and fluorescence variance over the plate. Select test signal in the popup window.If background values of 8, 000 to 10, 000 relative light units are obtained, select update and click save to save the main protocol. Then push run to start the assay. In this graph, a dose-dependent increase in fluorescence correlating with the dose-dependent increase in the release of calcium can be observed.Increasing levels of CXCL12-induced fluorescence allow the generation of a dose response curve based on the difference between the minimum and maximum response over baseline between the first measurement after addition addition of the chemokine and the final measurement in the protocol. No fluorescent calcium-related response was evoked by CXCL12 even at a high concentration when cells lacking the corresponding functional chemokine receptor CXCR4 were used demonstrating the receptor specificity of the CXCL12-evoked measurement. A key application for this cell-based assay is to identify small molecules that, following pre-incubation, dose dependently inhibit CXCL12-induced calcium mobilization in the cells as compared to control non-active compounds that do not inhibit the response.To determine the inhibitory potency of small molecules, a dose response curve can be generated for the inhibitory molecules using nonlinear regression. This assay can be used to study other G protein-coupled receptors with no or only minimal further optimization as well as in this experiment in which a dose-dependent increase in fluorescence was observed when another chemokine receptor, CCR5, was stimulated with its natural chemokine agonist CCL5. Once mastered, this technique can be used to study many other G-protein coupled receptors that signal via the mobilization of intracellular calcium ions upon receptor activation.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how this cellular assay can be used to identify agonists and antagonists of the CXCL4 chemokine receptor.

a-kinetic-fluorescence-based-ca2-mobilization-assay-to-identify-g

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

A Strategy to Identify de Novo Mutations in Common Disorders such as Autism and Schizophrenia

There are several lines of evidence supporting the role of de novo mutations as a mechanism for common disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. First, the de novo mutation rate in humans is relatively high, so new mutations are generated at a high frequency in the population. However, de novo mutations have not been reported in most common diseases. Mutations in genes leading to severe diseases where there is a strong negative selection against the phenotype, such as lethality in embryonic stages or reduced reproductive fitness, will not be transmitted to multiple family members, and therefore will not be detected by linkage gene mapping or association studies. The observation of very high concordance in monozygotic twins and very low concordance in dizygotic twins also strongly supports the hypothesis that a significant fraction of cases may result from new mutations. Such is the case for diseases such as autism and schizophrenia. Second, despite reduced reproductive fitness1 and extremely variable environmental factors, the incidence of some diseases is maintained worldwide at a relatively high and constant rate. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia, with an incidence of approximately 1% worldwide. Mutational load can be thought of as a balance between selection for or against a deleterious mutation and its production by de novo mutation. Lower rates of reproduction constitute a negative selection factor that should reduce the number of mutant alleles in the population, ultimately leading to decreased disease prevalence. These selective pressures tend to be of different intensity in different environments. Nonetheless, these severe mental disorders have been maintained at a constant relatively high prevalence in the worldwide population across a wide range of cultures and countries despite a strong negative selection against them2. This is not what one would predict in diseases with reduced reproductive fitness, unless there was a high new mutation rate. Finally, the effects of paternal age: there is a significantly increased risk of the disease with increasing paternal age, which could result from the age related increase in paternal de novo mutations. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia3. The male-to-female ratio of mutation rate is estimated at about 4&#x2013;6:1, presumably due to a higher number of germ-cell divisions with age in males. Therefore, one would predict that de novo mutations would more frequently come from males, particularly older males4. A high rate of new mutations may in part explain why genetic studies have so far failed to identify many genes predisposing to complexes diseases genes, such as autism and schizophrenia, and why diseases have been identified for a mere 3% of genes in the human genome. Identification for de novo mutations as a cause of a disease requires a targeted molecular approach, which includes studying parents and affected subjects. The process for determining if the genetic basis of a disease may result in part from de novo mutations and the molecular approach to establish this link will be illustrated, using autism and schizophrenia as examples.

Molecular genetic strategy for finding de novo mutations causing common disorders such as autism and schizophrenia.

There are several lines of evidence supporting the role of de novo mutations as a mechanism for common disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. First, ...

5/6th Nephrectomy in Combination with High Salt Diet and Nitric Oxide Synthase Inhibition to Induce Chronic Kidney Disease in the Lewis Rat

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global problem. Slowing CKD progression is a major health priority. Since CKD is characterized by complex derangements of homeostasis, integrative animal models are necessary to study development and progression of CKD. To study development of CKD and novel therapeutic interventions in CKD, we use the 5/6th nephrectomy ablation model, a well known experimental model of progressive renal disease, resembling several aspects of human CKD. The gross reduction in renal mass causes progressive glomerular and tubulo-interstitial injury, loss of remnant nephrons and development of systemic and glomerular hypertension. It is also associated with progressive intrarenal capillary loss, inflammation and glomerulosclerosis. Risk factors for CKD invariably impact on endothelial function. To mimic this, we combine removal of 5/6th of renal mass with nitric oxide (NO) depletion and a high salt diet. After arrival and acclimatization, animals receive a NO synthase inhibitor (NG-nitro-L-Arginine) (L-NNA) supplemented to drinking water (20 mg/L) for a period of 4 weeks, followed by right sided uninephrectomy. One week later, a subtotal nephrectomy (SNX) is performed on the left side. After SNX, animals are allowed to recover for two days followed by LNNA in drinking water (20 mg/L) for a further period of 4 weeks. A high salt diet (6%), supplemented in ground chow (see time line Figure 1), is continued throughout the experiment. Progression of renal failure is followed over time by measuring plasma urea, systolic blood pressure and proteinuria. By six weeks after SNX, renal failure has developed. Renal function is measured using 'gold standard' inulin and para-amino hippuric acid (PAH) clearance technology. This model of CKD is characterized by a reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and effective renal plasma flow (ERPF), hypertension (systolic blood pressure&gt;150 mmHg), proteinuria (&gt; 50 mg/24 hr) and mild uremia (&gt;10 mM). Histological features include tubulo-interstitial damage reflected by inflammation, tubular atrophy and fibrosis and focal glomerulosclerosis leading to massive reduction of healthy glomeruli within the remnant population (&lt;10%). Follow-up until 12 weeks after SNX shows further progression of CKD.

A two-stage method to establish chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the Lewis rat by surgically removing 5/6th of renal mass is described. Combination of the surgical procedure, NOS-inhibition and a high-salt diet leads to a model resembling human CKD, allowing study of causal mechanisms and development of novel therapeutic interventions.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global problem. Slowing CKD progression is a major health priority. Since CKD is characterized by complex derangements ...

High-throughput Flow Cytometry Cell-based Assay to Detect Antibodies to N-Methyl-D-aspartate Receptor or Dopamine-2 Receptor in Human Serum

Over the recent years, antibodies against surface and conformational proteins involved in neurotransmission have been detected in autoimmune CNS diseases in children and adults. These antibodies have been used to guide diagnosis and treatment. Cell-based assays have improved the detection of antibodies in patient serum. They are based on the surface expression of brain antigens on eukaryotic cells, which are then incubated with diluted patient sera followed by fluorochrome-conjugated secondary antibodies. After washing, secondary antibody binding is then analyzed by flow cytometry. Our group has developed a high-throughput flow cytometry live cell-based assay to reliably detect antibodies against specific neurotransmitter receptors. This flow cytometry method is straight forward, quantitative, efficient, and the use of a high-throughput sampler system allows for large patient cohorts to be easily assayed in a short space of time. Additionally, this cell-based assay can be easily adapted to detect antibodies to many different antigenic targets, both from the central nervous system and periphery. Discovering additional novel antibody biomarkers will enable prompt and accurate diagnosis and improve treatment of immune-mediated disorders.

Over the recent years, live cell-based assays have been used successfully to detect antibodies against surface and conformational antigens. Here, we describe a method using high-throughput flow cytometry enabling the analysis of large cohorts of patients. Detection of novel antibodies will improve diagnosis and treatment of immune-mediated disorders.

Over the recent years, antibodies against surface and conformational proteins involved in neurotransmission have been detected in autoimmune CNS diseases ...

Dynamic Visual Tests to Identify and Quantify Visual Damage and Repair Following Demyelination in Optic Neuritis Patients

In order to follow optic neuritis patients and evaluate the effectiveness of their treatment, a handy, accurate and quantifiable tool is required to assess changes in myelination at the central nervous system (CNS). However, standard measurements, including routine visual tests and MRI scans, are not sensitive enough for this purpose. We present two visual tests addressing dynamic monocular and binocular functions which may closely associate with the extent of myelination along visual pathways. These include Object From Motion (OFM) extraction and Time-constrained stereo protocols. In the OFM test, an array of dots compose an object, by moving the dots within the image rightward while moving the dots outside the image leftward or vice versa. The dot pattern generates a camouflaged object that cannot be detected when the dots are stationary or moving as a whole. Importantly, object recognition is critically dependent on motion perception. In the Time-constrained Stereo protocol, spatially disparate images are presented for a limited length of time, challenging binocular 3-dimensional integration in time. Both tests are appropriate for clinical usage and provide a simple, yet powerful, way to identify and quantify processes of demyelination and remyelination along visual pathways. These protocols may be efficient to diagnose and follow optic neuritis and multiple sclerosis patients.
In the diagnostic process, these protocols may reveal visual deficits that cannot be identified via current standard visual measurements. Moreover, these protocols sensitively identify the basis of the currently unexplained continued visual complaints of patients following recovery of visual acuity. In the longitudinal follow up course, the protocols can be used as a sensitive marker of demyelinating and remyelinating processes along time. These protocols may therefore be used to evaluate the efficacy of current and evolving therapeutic strategies, targeting myelination of the CNS.

Object From Motion (OFM) and Time-constrained stereo protocols are sensitive tools to identify monocular and binocular dynamic visual function deficits, which are uniquely affected in optic neuritis patients. Furthermore, these tests may be used as quantitative noninvasive tools to assess the extent of myelination along visual pathways.

In order to follow optic neuritis patients and evaluate the effectiveness of their treatment, a handy, accurate and quantifiable tool is required to ...

Utilization of the Soft Agar Colony Formation Assay to Identify Inhibitors of Tumorigenicity in Breast Cancer Cells

Given the inherent difficulties in investigating the mechanisms of tumor progression in vivo, cell-based assays such as the soft agar colony formation assay (hereafter called soft agar assay), which measures the ability of cells to proliferate in semi-solid matrices, remain a hallmark of cancer research. A key advantage of this technique over conventional 2D monolayer or 3D spheroid cell culture assays is the close mimicry of the 3D cellular environment to that seen in vivo. Importantly, the soft agar assay also provides an ideal tool to rigorously test the effects of novel compounds or treatment conditions on cell proliferation and migration. Additionally, this assay enables the quantitative assessment of cell transformation potential within the context of genetic perturbations. We recently identified peptidylarginine deiminase 2 (PADI2) as a potential breast cancer biomarker and therapeutic target. Here we highlight the utility of the soft agar assay for preclinical anti-cancer studies by testing the effects of the PADI inhibitor, BB-Cl-amidine (BB-CLA), on the tumorigenicity of human ductal carcinoma in situ (MCF10DCIS) cells.

Here, we document the use of the soft agar colony formation assay to test the effects of a peptidylarginine deiminase (PADI) enzyme inhibitor, BB-Cl-amidine, on breast cancer tumorigenicity in vitro.

Given the inherent difficulties in investigating the mechanisms of tumor progression in vivo, cell-based assays such as the soft agar colony formation ...

A Rat Carotid Balloon Injury Model to Test Anti-vascular Remodeling Therapeutics

The rat carotid balloon injury is a well-established surgical model that has been used to study arterial remodeling and vascular cell proliferation. It is also a valuable model system to test, and to evaluate therapeutics and drugs that negate maladaptive remodeling in the vessel. The injury, or barotrauma, in the vessel lumen caused by an inflated balloon via an inserted catheter induces subsequent neointimal growth, often leading to hyperplasia or thickening of the vessel wall that narrows, or obstructs the lumen. The method described here is sufficiently sensitive, and the results can be obtained in relatively short time (2 weeks after the surgery). The efficacy of the drug or therapeutic against the induced-remodeling can be evaluated either by the post-mortem pathological and histomorphological analysis, or by ultrasound sonography in live animals. In addition, this model system has also been used to determine the therapeutic window or the time course of the administered drug. These studies can leadto the development of a better administrative strategy and a better therapeutic outcome. The procedure described here provides a tool for translational studies that bring drug and therapeutic candidates from bench research to clinical applications.

The rat carotid balloon injury model described below allows researchers to evaluate drugs or therapeutics that negate injury-induced arterial hyperplasia. Detailed pre-surgical preparation, surgical procedure, and post-surgical cares of the animal are described.

The rat carotid balloon injury is a well-established surgical model that has been used to study arterial remodeling and vascular cell proliferation. It is ...

Isolation and Culture of Primary Endothelial Cells from Canine Arteries and Veins

Cardiovascular disease is studied in both human and veterinary medicine. Endothelial cells have been used extensively as an in vitro model to study vasculogenesis, (tumor) angiogenesis, and atherosclerosis. The current standard for in vitro research on human endothelial cells (ECs) is the use of Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) and Human Umbilical Artery Endothelial Cells (HUAECs). For canine endothelial research, only one cell line (CnAOEC) is available, which is derived from canine aortic endothelium. Although currently not completely understood, there is a difference between ECs originating from either arteries or veins. For a more direct approach to in vitro functionality studies on ECs, we describe a new method for isolating Canine Primary Endothelial Cells (CaPECs) from a variety of vessels. This technique reduces the chance of contamination with fast-growing cells such as fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells, a problem that is common in standard isolation methods such as flushing the vessel with enzymatic solutions or mincing the vessel prior to digestion of the tissue containing all cells. The technique we describe was optimized for the canine model, but can easily be utilized in other species such as human.

Novel isolation methods of primary endothelial cells from blood vessels are needed. This protocol describes a new technique that completely inverts blood vessels of interest, exposing only the endothelial side to enzymatic digestion. The resulting pure endothelial cell culture can be used to study cardiovascular diseases, disease modelling, and angiogenesis.

Cardiovascular disease is studied in both human and veterinary medicine. Endothelial cells have been used extensively as an in vitro model to study ...

A Clinical Trial Assessing the Safety, Efficacy, and Delivery of Olive-Oil-Based Three-Chamber Bags for Parenteral Nutrition

Limited evidence exists to precisely estimate efficacy and safety differences between parenteral nutrition (PN) prepared using olive-oil-based three-chamber bags (3CBs) and soybean-oil-based compounded bags (CoBs) in hospitalized adult patients. We designed a multicenter, randomized, prospective, open-label, noninferiority protocol to compare the efficacy, safety, and distribution of olive-oil-based 3CBs and soybean-oil-based CoB formulations in adult Chinese patients requiring PN during surgical intervention. Subjects were randomized to receive either one of the study treatments using an interactive voice or web-based recognition system in accordance with the randomization code. Randomization was further stratified based on the study site and surgical category. Both treatment groups received similar amounts of calories and protein. In addition, the two study treatments contained a similar composition of the amino-acid component. The only difference between the two PN formulations was the lipid constitution. The duration of administration of study treatments was a minimum of 5 days up to a maximum of 14 days after the surgical procedure. The primary efficacy endpoint was serum prealbumin levels on day 5 of the study. Noninferiority was proved if the anti-log of the lower bound of the 95% confidence interval (CI) of the treatment difference was at least 0.80. Other efficacy measures included treatment preparation time; duration to achieve tolerability of oral nutrition; associated infectious complications; length of hospitalization; and laboratory assessment of markers of nutrition, inflammation, metabolism, and oxidative stress. A total of 458 patients were enrolled in the study. The results showed that olive-oil-based 3CBs were non-inferior to soybean-based CoBs, besides being well tolerated. The infection rate was found to be significantly lower in the olive-oil-based 3CB group. Thus, this study may be used as a reference for future research on lipid emulsion and 3CBs.

Here, we present a protocol for a study comparing the efficacy, safety, and delivery of olive-oil-based 3CB and soybean-oil-based CoB formulations in adults requiring parenteral nutrition. The results revealed that olive-oil-based 3CBs is non-inferior and well tolerated compared to soybean formulations.

Limited evidence exists to precisely estimate efficacy and safety differences between parenteral nutrition (PN) prepared using olive-oil-based ...

A Fluorescence-based Assay for Characterization and Quantification of Lipid Droplet Formation in Human Intestinal Organoids

Dietary lipids are taken up as free fatty acids (FAs) by the intestinal epithelium. These FAs are intracellularly converted into triglyceride (TG) molecules, before they are packaged into chylomicrons for transport to the lymph or into cytosolic lipid droplets (LDs) for intracellular storage. A crucial step for the formation of LDs is the catalytic activity of diacylglycerol acyltransferases (DGAT) in the final step of TG synthesis. LDs are important to buffer toxic lipid species and regulate cellular metabolism in different cell types. Since the human intestinal epithelium is regularly confronted with high concentrations of lipids, LD formation is of great importance to regulate homeostasis. Here we describe a simple assay for the characterization and quantification of LD formation (LDF) upon stimulation with the most common unsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, in human intestinal organoids. The LDF assay is based on the LD-specific fluorescent dye LD540, which allows for quantification of LDs by confocal microscopy, fluorescent plate reader, or flow cytometry. The LDF assay can be used to characterize LD formation in human intestinal epithelial cells, or to study human (genetic) disorders that affect LD metabolism, such as DGAT1 deficiency. Furthermore, this assay can also be used in a high-throughput pipeline to test novel therapeutic compounds, which restore defects in LD formation in intestinal or other types of organoids.

This protocol describes an assay for the characterization of lipid droplet (LD) formation in human intestinal organoids upon stimulation with fatty acids. We discuss how this assay is used for quantification of LD formation, and how it can be used for high throughput screening for drugs that affect LD formation.

Dietary lipids are taken up as free fatty acids (FAs) by the intestinal epithelium. These FAs are intracellularly converted into triglyceride (TG) ...

A Simple Pit Assay Protocol to Visualize and Quantify Osteoclastic Resorption In Vitro

Mature osteoclasts are multinucleated cells that can degrade bone through the secretion of acids and enzymes. They play a crucial role in various diseases (e.g., osteoporosis and bone cancer) and are therefore important objects of research. In vitro, their activity can be analyzed by the formation of resorption pits. In this protocol, we describe a simple pit assay method using calcium phosphate (CaP) coated cell culture plates, which can be easily visualized and quantified. Osteoclast precursors derived from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were cultured on the coated plates in the presence of osteoclastogenic stimuli. After 9 days of incubation, osteoclasts were fixed and stained for fluorescence imaging while the CaP coating was counterstained by calcein. To quantify the resorbed area, the CaP coating on plates was stained with 5% AgNO3 and visualized by brightfield imaging. The resorption pit area was quantified using ImageJ.

A Simple Pit Assay Protocol to Visualize and Quantify Osteoclastic Resorption In Vitro

Here, we present a simple and effective assay procedure for resorption pit assays using calcium phosphate coated cell culture plates.

Mature osteoclasts are multinucleated cells that can degrade bone through the secretion of acids and enzymes. They play a crucial role in various diseases ...