J. Chua, D. Chabot and A. Friedlander designed the procedures described in the manuscript. J. Chua and T. Putmon-Taylor performed the experiments. D. Chabot performed data analysis. J. Chua wrote the manuscript.
The authors thank Kyle J. Fitts for excellent technical assistance.
The work was supported by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency grant CBM.VAXBT.03.10.RD.015, plan number 921175.
Opinions, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations are those of the authors and are not necessarily endorsed by the U. S. Army. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Defense, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U. S. Government.

In compliance with the Animal Welfare Act, Public Health Service policy, and other federal statutes and regulations pertaining to animals and experiments involving animals, the research described here was conducted under an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee&#8211;approved protocol. The facility where this research was conducted is accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, International and adheres to principles stated in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, National Research Council, 201124.
1. Culture and maintenance of the cell line, RAW 264.7
NOTE: The following procedures must be performed with aseptic techniques.
<ol>
	<li>Heat fetal bovine serum (FBS) in a 56 &#176;C water bath for 30 min to inactivate complement. 
	NOTE: The inactivation time of 30 min begins when FBS reaches 56 &#176;C. To monitor the temperature, heat a similar volume of water in a beaker in the same water bath. Once the water reaches 56 &#176;C, begin the 30 min countdown for FBS. Alternatively, FBS that has&#160;been heat-inactivated is&#160;also commercially available.</li>
	<li>Prepare medium for RAW 264.7 cells by combining 90% DMEM with high glucose and 10% heat inactivated FBS (v/v). Add L-glutamine to a final concentration of 6 mM. 
	NOTE: DMEM with high glucose is formulated with 4 mM L-glutamine. Supplementing L-glutamine to 6 mM promotes consistent cell growth. 100 U/mL penicillin and 100 &#181;g/mL streptomycin may be added to prevent contamination. Another common murine cell line, J774A.1, may also be used and is grown under similar conditions.</li>
	<li>Thaw a frozen vial of cells in a 37 &#176;C water bath and remove from bath as soon as it melts. Add contents aseptically to 5 mL complete medium in a conical tube. Invert conical tube twice and spin at 300 x g for 5 min to pellet cells.</li>
	<li>Aspirate medium using a sterile Pasteur pipet attached to a vacuum to remove freezing agent. Resuspend cell pellet in 5 mL of fresh medium.</li>
	<li>Transfer suspension to a tissue culture treated flask or dish. Add enough medium to completely cover the bottom of the flask and swirl to evenly distribute cells. Indicate passage number starting with &#8220;1&#8221;.</li>
	<li>Incubate cells at 37 &#176;C in the presence of 5% CO2 and humidity until 95% to 100% confluency is reached. Check cells daily under the microscope beginning with the second day of incubation. Do not allow the cells to reach &#62;100% confluency as this will cause the cells to lift off and die. 
	NOTE: The time needed to reach confluency depends on how many live cells were plated and the growth area of the flask. Thus, it is prudent to check the cells daily.</li>
	<li>Subculture cells by scraping and diluting the cell stock in fresh medium allowing at least two days of growth between scrapings. Increase the passage number by 1 with each subculture. 
	NOTE: Passing and immediate scraping the following day will result in faster loss of general cell adherence over time. RAW 264.7 cells should only be used up to approximately passage 15.</li>
	<li>To plate RAW 264.7 cells for the OAA assay, replace with fresh medium and use a cell scraper to gently scrape cells off the flask. Pipette up and down to break up the cell clumps for easier cell counting. 
	NOTE: The traditional method for subculturing RAW 264.7 is by scraping. In our experience, the use of trypsin causes RAW 264.7 cells to lose adherence over time faster than with scraping.</li>
	<li>To count cells, dilute equal volumes of cells and trypan blue solution. Load 10 &#181;L onto a hemocytometer. Observe and count the number of live cells that exclude the dye using an inverted compound microscope with a 10x objective lens.</li>
	<li>Plate 1.4 x 104&#160;viable cells per well in a 96 well 0.15 &#181;m-thick glass flat bottom plate (Plate #1). Allow cells to grow for 3 days. Replace spent medium one day before performing OAA. 
	NOTE: After 3 days of incubation, the number of cells should be approximately 5 x 104/well. &#160;</li>
</ol>
2. Bacterial Culture and Preparations
NOTE: The bacterial species used in this protocol is an encapsulated virulent strain, B. anthracis Ames. All manipulations with this species require appropriate biosafety and security clearances and must be performed in a Class II or Class III biological safety cabinet located in a BSL-3 laboratory. Follow institutional operating procedures for BSL-3 work and for use of personal protective equipment when handling bacteria.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) broth by dissolving 37 g BHI powder in 1 L water and autoclaving at 121 &#176;C for 15 min. Store broth at ambient temperature.</li>
	<li>Prepare 8% sodium bicarbonate solution in water and sterilize using a 0.20 &#181;m filter syringe. Store solution at 4 &#176;C and use within 1 day.</li>
	<li>Mix 8 g Nutrient Broth, 3 g yeast extract and 15 g agar in 1 L water to prepare NBY agar plates. Autoclave at 121 &#176;C for 15 min. Pour into petri dishes and allow to solidify. Store plates at 4 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: NBY agar plates may be made with or without sodium bicarbonate. The addition of sodium bicarbonate to broth and agar plates induces the growth of mucoid colonies consisting of encapsulated bacilli. Final concentration of sodium bicarbonate in both liquid and solid media is 0.8%.</li>
	<li>Prepare culture broth for B. anthracis by mixing 50% autoclaved BHI broth, 40% FBS and 10% sodium bicarbonate solution (v/v). 
	NOTE: This broth is formulated to produce short chains of encapsulated bacilli.</li>
	<li>Prepare a master plate of B. anthracis by streaking it for isolation on an NBY agar plate from a spore stock one day before culturing in broth. Incubate at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Inoculate 30 mL of culture broth in a vented 250 mL flask with several colonies of B. anthracis. 
	NOTE: A specific volume to surface ratio of broth, as specified here, is needed to produce maximally encapsulated bacilli.</li>
	<li>Shake the broth culture at 125 rpm, 37 &#176;C with 20% CO2 and humidity for 18&#8211;24 h. 
	NOTE: Growing B. anthracis at temperatures greater than 37 &#176;C may inhibit capsule production.</li>
	<li>Use negative staining with India ink to ensure sufficient encapsulation and that bacilli are in short chains (1&#8211;5 bacilli/chain) prior to fixation (see section 3).</li>
	<li>To determine colony forming units (CFU), serially dilute 100 &#181;L of culture 1:10 in Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) solution and plate culture dilutions on sheep blood agar plates. Incubate for 12&#8211;18 h at 37 &#176;C. Count CFUs and determine number of bacteria per mL of culture. 
	NOTE: Counting can also be performed using a hemocytometer under the microscope once the bacteria have been fixed. However, this is not recommended because the bacilli are difficult to see under low magnification.</li>
	<li>Add 16% paraformaldehyde (PF) to the entire volume of bacterial culture at a final concentration of 4% PF to fix the bacilli. Slowly agitate on a shaker at ambient temperature for 7 days. 
	NOTE: Seven days of incubation in 4% PF is based on the USAMRIID institutional standard operating procedure for fixing vegetative bacilli.</li>
	<li>To remove the fixative and test for sterility, thrice wash 4 mL (10% volume) of fixed bacterial suspension in a 50 mL conical tube by centrifugation at &#8805;3000 x g for 45 min and using a 30 mL/wash with PBS. Store the remaining sample in 4% PF at 4 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: After pelleting, the bacterial pellet is fluffy due to the presence of capsule. Take care not to disturb the pellet during washing. It is necessary to remove all fixative so that it does not interfere with the viability testing. If necessary, increase the number of washes.</li>
	<li>For viability testing, inoculate 40 mL of a bacterial growth medium (e.g. BHI broth) with 4 mL of washed suspension (&#8804; 10% of broth volume) and incubate at 37 &#176;C for 7 days. Check optical density at 600 nm before and after 7 days to measure turbidity.</li>
	<li>After 7 days of incubation in broth culture, plate &#8805;100 &#181;L of broth onto an agar plate and incubate for another 7 days. If no increase in turbidity and no growth on plates are seen, the original culture is considered sterile and may be transferred to a BSL-2 laboratory. 
	NOTE: The Federal Select Agent Program22 mandates that inactivated B. anthracis can only be transferred from BSL-3 laboratories after demonstrating complete sterility of sample. Viability testing for inactivated B. anthracis consists of culturing 10% of the sample in broth for 7 days followed by culturing on solid medium for another 7 days22,23. Follow institutional guidelines to receive transfer approval once sterility is established.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; &#160;</li>
</ol>
3. Negative staining and light microscopy to observe encapsulation and bacilli chains
<ol>
	<li>Mix 5 &#181;L bacterial suspension with 2 &#181;L of India ink on a microscope slide. Place a 1 or 1.5 &#181;m thick cover glass on top of the suspension without creating bubbles. 
	NOTE: Nail polish may be used to seal the cover glass onto the slide.</li>
	<li>Observe the bacterial suspension using a 40x to 100x oil objective lens on a light microscope. Ensure that the bacilli are encapsulated by observing a zone of clearance (capsule excludes India ink) surrounding each bacterium and that the bacilli chains are short.</li>
</ol>
4. FITC-labeling of bacteria
<ol>
	<li>Dissolve fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) in dimethyl sulfoxide at a concentration of 2 mg/mL.</li>
	<li>Measure the volume of inactivated bacterial stock.</li>
	<li>Wash the stock 3x in PBS to remove fixative.</li>
	<li>Add FITC solution at a final concentration of 75 &#181;g/mL. Slowly agitate mixture for 18&#8211;24 h at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Thrice wash the bacteria by pelleting at &#8805;3000 x g, 45 min and using&#160;30 mL PBS/wash to remove excess FITC. Ensure that the fluffy pellet is not disturbed during washing. Resuspend the bacilli in PBS in the same start volume.</li>
	<li>Aliquot and store the bacilli in microtubes at -20 &#176;C until use. Do not freeze/thaw bacilli multiple times as the bacilli may lose capsule.</li>
</ol>
5. Bacterial Opsonization
<ol>
	<li>Heat inactivate a small volume of test sera (from NHPs) at 56 &#176;C for 30 min in a heat block.</li>
	<li>Thaw and wash FITC-labelled bacteria with PBS 2x by pelleting at 15000 x g for 3&#8211;5 min. Resuspend in PBS in the same start volume.</li>
	<li>In a 96 well round bottom plate (plate #2), serially dilute test sera in cell medium. In another 96 well round bottom plate (plate #3), add 10 &#181;L of diluted test sera into each well. 
	NOTE: In every plate, PBS and normal monkey sera were included in place of diluted test sera as negative controls. We also chose one test serum as a positive control to generate a standard curve to normalize all assays done on different days. The positive control test serum was arbitrarily chosen because it was plentiful.</li>
	<li>To plate #3, add 10 &#181;L freshly reconstituted baby rabbit complement. 
	NOTE: Once reconstituted, discard remaining baby rabbit complement; do not refreeze and thaw.</li>
	<li>To plate #3, add the appropriate volume of FITC-labeled bacilli for a multiplicity of infection of 1:20. For example, add the volume that contains 5 x 104 x 20 bacilli for 5 x 104 cells. Top off each well in plate #3 with the appropriate volume of cell medium to total 105 &#181;L. 
	NOTE: Plate #1, which contains cells, receives 100 &#181;L of opsonized bacteria with the remaining 5 &#181;L as the void volume. We tested each dilution of the test sera in duplicate.</li>
	<li>Incubate plate #3 at 37 &#176;C for 30 min in the presence of 5% CO2 with humidity to opsonize bacilli.</li>
</ol>
6. Adherence Assay and Fluorescent Labeling of Mammalian cells
<ol>
	<li>Maintain all reagents at 37 &#176;C prior to use.</li>
	<li>Place plate #1, which contains adherent cells, on a 37 &#176;C heat block.</li>
	<li>Use a multichannel pipettor to remove spent medium from wells and quickly replace with 100 &#181;L of opsonized bacteria from plate #3. Ensure no bubbles have been generated in the wells during pipetting. Incubate plate #1 at 37 &#176;C with 5% CO2 and humidity for 30 min for adherence.</li>
	<li>Wash each well 5x with 150 &#181;L PBS on top of a 37 &#176;C heat block to remove unattached bacilli. 
	NOTE: Care must be taken to ensure that the cells are not accidentally dispersed during washing.</li>
	<li>Dilute 16% PF with PBS 1:4 to make 4% PF. Fix cells with 4% PF for 1 h by adding 150 &#181;L to each well. Wash cells 2x with PBS.</li>
	<li>Mix 2 &#181;L HCS (high-content screening) Orange Cell Stain in 10 mL PBS. Add 150 &#181;L of this staining solution to fixed cells and incubate for 30 min at ambient temperature.</li>
	<li>Wash wells 2x with PBS.</li>
	<li>Store at 4 &#176;C until microscopy.</li>
</ol>
7. Microscopy
NOTE: In general, a high-throughput automated fluorescence microscope will facilitate imaging for the OAA. If an automated system is not available, fluorescent images of adherent bacilli can be taken manually21. In this study20, adherent bacilli and cell monolayers were imaged using the Zeiss 700 laser scanning microscopy system with specialized equipment; our system was composed of the Zeiss Axio Observer Z1 inverted microscope equipped with an automated stage, the Definite Focus module, 40 x NA 0.6 objective, Axio Cam HRc camera and Zen 2012 (Blue Edition) software. The images acquired are widefield images, not confocal images. The following protocol is intended as a basic microscope setup that is applicable to a variety of automated microscopy systems.
<ol>
	<li>Incubate plate #1 at ambient temperature for 30 min. Turn on the microscope and related equipment. 
	NOTE: Acclimation at ambient temperature prevents condensation from forming on the glass plate during imaging. In addition, it prevents defocusing due to temperature shift.</li>
	<li>Place plate on the stage and focus on the cells using bright field or phase contrast.</li>
	<li>Select 96 well format as the plate setting. Select channel settings. 
	NOTE: FITC&#8217;s peak excitation and emission wavelength are 495/519 nm; the HCS orange cell stain are 556 and 572 nm. Other fluorophores may be used depending on the filters that are available on the microscope.</li>
	<li>Select setting to Tile mode. Indicate the number of images to be acquired. 
	NOTE: The tiling function allows the capture of multiple locations in a sample well and can be set to acquire image in a tiling or a random format. We imaged 10 random areas per well.</li>
	<li>Change acquisition mode to &#8220;black &#38; white&#8221; or &#8220;monochrome&#8221; and binning &#8805; 2x2. 
	NOTE: Setting the binning from 1x1 to 2x2 or 4x4 would increase microscopy speed but would also result in lower resolution of the image. For OAA, it is sufficient to use these settings as the assay enumerates both the macrophages and the adherent bacteria.</li>
	<li>Turn on autofocus or focusing module. Indicate how often autofocusing function is to be performed. Turn on Z stack function, if available. Indicate the number of Z stacks that will capture the thickness of the cell monolayer and adherent bacilli. 
	NOTE: The number of Z stacks chosen will increase microscopy time but will ensure an image with the correct focus is taken at each Z stack.</li>
	<li>Designate a file folder to save images to. Run the automated imaging program.</li>
</ol>
8. Data Collection and Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Count the number of adherent bacilli and mammalian cells per image. Count each chain of bacilli as one bacterium.</li>
	<li>Plot the bacilli/cells of the positive control test serum and titer (e. g., 1:10 dilution is 10 titer units) to generate a standard curve in an appropriate statistics program.</li>
	<li>Analyze the positive control test serum using non-linear regression curve fitting. Then analyze the remaining samples using the standard curve of the positive control test serum to determine corresponding titers. 
	NOTE: It is usually most accurate to choose the sample dilutions near the middle of the standard curve when determining titers.</li>
	<li>Calculate the geometric mean of the samples from each vaccine group. Calculate the P- values of log transformed titers by least significant difference ANOVA analysis.</li>
</ol>

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G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decline+of+childhood+Haemophilus+influenzae+type+b+(Hib)+disease+in+the+Hib+vaccine+era.">Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease in the Hib vaccine era.</a> JAMA. 269 (2), 221-226 (1993).</li><li>Balmer, P., Borrow, R., Miller, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+meningococcal+C+conjugate+vaccine+in+the+UK.">Impact of meningococcal C conjugate vaccine in the UK.</a> Journal of Medical Microbiology. 51 (9), 717-722 (2002).</li><li>Chen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+opsonophagocytic+killing+activity+with+pneumococcal+conjugate+vaccine+in+human+immunodeficiency+virus-infected+Ugandan+adults.">Induction of opsonophagocytic killing activity with pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected Ugandan adults.</a> Vaccine. 26 (38), 4962-4968 (2008).</li><li>Paschall, A. V., Middleton, D. R., Avci, F. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Opsonophagocytic+Killing+Assay+to+Assess+Immunological+Responses+Against+Bacterial+Pathogens.">Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (146), e59400 (2019).</li><li>Ezzell, J. W., Welkos, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+capsule+of+Bacillus+anthracis,+a+review.">The capsule of Bacillus anthracis, a review.</a> Journal of Applied Microbiology. 87 (2), 250 (1999).</li><li>Hanna, P. C., Acosta, D., Collier, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+role+of+macrophages+in+anthrax.">On the role of macrophages in anthrax.</a> Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (21), 10198-10201 (1993).</li><li>Fleck, R. A., Romero-Steiner, S., Nahm, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+HL-60+cell+line+to+measure+opsonic+capacity+of+pneumococcal+antibodies.">Use of HL-60 cell line to measure opsonic capacity of pneumococcal antibodies.</a> Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 12 (1), 19-27 (2005).</li><li>Chua, J., Deretic, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mycobacterium+tuberculosis+reprograms+waves+of+phosphatidylinositol+3-phosphate+on+phagosomal+organelles.">Mycobacterium tuberculosis reprograms waves of phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate on phagosomal organelles.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (35), 36982-36992 (2004).</li><li>Chua, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=pH+Alkalinization+by+Chloroquine+Suppresses+Pathogenic+Burkholderia+Type+6+Secretion+System+1+and+Multinucleated+Giant+Cells.">pH Alkalinization by Chloroquine Suppresses Pathogenic Burkholderia Type 6 Secretion System 1 and Multinucleated Giant Cells.</a> Infection &amp; Immunity. 85 (1), (2017).</li><li>Ober, R. J., Radu, C. G., Ghetie, V., Ward, E. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differences+in+promiscuity+for+antibody-FcRn+interactions+across+species:+implications+for+therapeutic+antibodies.">Differences in promiscuity for antibody-FcRn interactions across species: implications for therapeutic antibodies.</a> International Immunology. 13 (12), 1551-1559 (2001).</li><li>Sorman, A., Zhang, L., Ding, Z., Heyman, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+antibodies+use+complement+to+regulate+antibody+responses.">How antibodies use complement to regulate antibody responses.</a> Molecular Immunology. 61 (2), 79-88 (2014).</li><li>Henckaerts, I., Durant, N., De Grave, D., Schuerman, L., Poolman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Validation+of+a+routine+opsonophagocytosis+assay+to+predict+invasive+pneumococcal+disease+efficacy+of+conjugate+vaccine+in+children.">Validation of a routine opsonophagocytosis assay to predict invasive pneumococcal disease efficacy of conjugate vaccine in children.</a> Vaccine. 25 (13), 2518-2527 (2007).</li><li>Wolf, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Special Considerations for the Nonclinical Safety Assessment of Vaccines. , 243-255 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors do not have a commercial or other association that might pose a conflict of interest.

Capsule based vaccines have been shown to be efficacious against numerous bacterial pathogens, and many are licensed for use in humans25,26,27. These vaccines work by generating antibodies targeting the capsule and many of these studies use the OPKA to show the opsono-phagocytic functions of the antibodies13,14,16,<sup class=...

Recognition, adherence, internalization, and degradation of a pathogen are integral to phagocytosis1, a salient pathway in the host innate immune response first described by Ilya Metchnikoff in 18832,3. Phagocytic leukocytes, as well as other cells of the immune system, are highly discriminatory in their selection of targets; they are able to distinguish between &#8220;infectious non-self&#8221; and &#8220;non-infectious self&#8221; through pathogen associated molecular patterns by their repertoire of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)4,5. Host recognition of a pathogen may also occur with the binding of host&#160;opsonins, such as complement and antibodies6. This process, called opsonization, coats the pathogen with these molecules, enhancing internalization upon binding to opsonic receptors (e.g., complement and Fc receptors) on phagocytic cells6. For a pathogen to adhere to a phagocyte, collective binding of multiple receptors with their cognate ligands is necessary. Only then can adherence trigger and sustain signaling cascades inside the host cell to initiate internalization6.
Due to the importance of phagocytosis in the clearance of pathogens and prevention of infection, extracellular pathogens have developed numerous ways to subvert this process to prolong their survival. One strategy of importance is the production of an anionic polymeric (e.g., polysaccharide or polyamino acid) capsule which is anti-phagocytic by virtue of its charge, is poorly immunogenic, and shields molecules on the bacterial envelope from PRRs6,7. Pathogens such as Cryptococcus neoformans and Streptococcus pneumoniae have capsules composed of saccharide polymers, whereas Staphylococcus epidermidis and some Bacillus species produce poly-&#611;-glutamic acid (PGGA)7,8. Yet other pathogens produce capsules that resemble the non-infectious self. For example, Streptococcus pyogenes and a pathogenic strain of B. cereus have a hyaluronic acid capsule that is not only anti-phagocytic but which also may not be recognized as foreign by the immune system9,10.
Conjugation of capsule to carrier proteins converts them from poor, T-independent antigens into highly immunogenic T-dependent antigens that can induce high serum anti-capsule antibody titers11,12. This strategy is employed for licensed vaccines against S. pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitides11. The opsonic activities of anti-capsule antibodies have commonly been evaluated by&#160;opsono-phagocytic killing assays (OPKA)13,14,15,16. These&#160;assays test&#160;whether functional antibodies can trigger phagocytosis and killing14. However, the use of OPKA with infectious pathogens, such as Tier 1 Biological Select Agents and Toxins (BSAT), including B. anthracis17, is hazardous and presents security risks; these assays necessitate extensive handling of a select agent. Select agent handling can only be done in restricted biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories; work in these areas demands protracted operating procedures due to the numerous safety and security precautions that must be followed. BSL-3 laboratories are also typically not equipped with the specialized equipment used for OPKA work, such as microscopes and cytometers. Thus, we developed an alternative assay based on the use of inactivated bacteria18,19. We refer to this as an opsono-adherence assay (OAA) that is not dependent on internalization and killing as assay outputs; instead, adherence of opsonized inactivated pathogens is used as an index of phagocytosis. Mechanistically, OAA is a suitable substitute because adherence occurs a priori and is intimately intertwined with internalization and intracellular killing. From a biosafety perspective, OAA is preferred because it requires minimal handling of an infectious agent, is experimentally of shorter duration than OPKA, and can be performed in BSL-2 laboratories after a stock of the inactivated pathogen has been produced and transferred.
We demonstrate the utilization of OAA to examine the opsonic function of anti-capsule antibodies found in sera of non-human primates (NHPs) vaccinated with a capsule conjugate [i.e. PGGA from B. anthracis conjugated to the outer membrane protein complex (OMPC) of Neisseria meningitides]20. Serum opsonized bacilli were incubated with an adherent mouse macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. After fixation, the cell monolayer and adherent bacilli were imaged by fluorescence microscopy. Bacterial adherence increased when the bacilli were incubated with serum from NHPs vaccinated with the capsule conjugate compared to control serum20. Adherence correlated with survival of the anthrax challenge20,21. Thus, the use of OAA characterized the function of anti-capsule antibodies and greatly facilitated testing of our vaccine candidate.&#160;&#160; &#160;

<table><tbody><tr><td>0.20 &amp;micro;m syringe filter (25mm, regenerated cellulose)</td><td>Corning, Corning, NY</td><td>431222</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10 mL syringe (Luer-Lok tip)</td><td>BD, Franklin Lakes, NJ</td><td>302995</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>15&amp;micro; 96 well black plates (plate #1 for imaging)</td><td>In Vitro Scientific, Sunnyvale, CA</td><td>P96-1-N</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>16% paraformaldehyde</td><td>Electron Microscopy Science, Hatfield, PA</td><td>15710</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>75 cm sq. tissue culture treated flask</td><td>Corning, Corning, NY</td><td>430641</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Agar (powder)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td><td>A1296</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Baby Rabbit Complement</td><td>Cedarlane Labs, Burlington, NC</td><td>CL3441</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bacto Yeast Extract</td><td>BD, Sparks, MD</td><td>288620</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>BBL Brain Heart Infusion (BHI)</td><td>BD, Sparks, MD</td><td>211059</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blood Agar (TSA with Sheep Blood) plates</td><td>Remel, Lenexa, KS</td><td>R01198</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cell scraper</td><td>Sarstedt, Newton, NC</td><td>83.183</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Costar 96 well cell culture plates (plates #2 &amp;amp; 3 for dilutions)</td><td>Corning, Corning, NY</td><td>3596</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cover glass</td><td>Electron Microscopy Science, Hatfield, PA</td><td>72200-10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Difco Nutrient Broth</td><td>BD, Sparks, MD</td><td>234000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), high glucose</td><td>Gibco, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td><td>11965-092</td><td>contains 4500 mg/L glucose, 4 mM L-glutamine, Phenol Red</td></tr><tr><td>EVOS FL Auto Cell Imaging System (fluorescence microscope)</td><td>Life Technologies, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td><td>AMAFD1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td><td>Hyclone, GE Healthcare Life Sciences, South Logan, UT</td><td>SH30071.03</td><td>not gamma irradiated, not heat inactivated</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescein isothiocyanate</td><td>Invitrogen, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td><td>F143</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HCS Cell Mask Orange Cell Stain</td><td>Invitrogen, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td><td>H32713</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>hemocytometer (Improved Neubauer)</td><td>Hausser Scientific, Horsham, PA</td><td>3900</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>India Ink solution</td><td>BD, Sparks, MD</td><td>261194</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>L- glutamine (200 mM)</td><td>Gibco, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham MA</td><td>25030081</td><td>supplement medium with additional 2mM L-glutamine</td></tr><tr><td>Nikon Eclipse TE2000-U (inverted compound microscope)</td><td>Nikon Instruments, Melville, NY</td><td>TE2000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBS without Calcium or Magnesium</td><td>Lonza, Walkersville, MD</td><td>17-516F</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin-Streptomycin Solution, 100x</td><td>Hyclone, GE Healthcare Life Sciences, South Logan, UT</td><td>SV30010</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>petri dishes (100 x 15 mm)</td><td>Falcon, Corning, Durham, NC</td><td>351029</td><td>for agar plates</td></tr><tr><td>RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line (Tib47)</td><td>ATCC, Manassas, VA</td><td>ATCC TIB-71</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Slides</td><td>VWR, Radnor, PA</td><td>16004-422</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Bicarbonate</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td><td>S5761</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypan Blue Solution (0.4%)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td><td>T8154</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Zeiss 700 Laser Scanning Microscopy (confocal microscope)</td><td>Carl Zeiss Microimaging, Thornwood, NY</td><td>4109001865956000</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

opsono-adherence assay to evaluate functional antibodies in vaccine development against bacillus anthracis and other encapsulated pathogens

The opsono-adherence assay is a functional assay that enumerates the attachment of bacterial pathogens to professional phagocytes. Because adherence is requisite to phagocytosis and killing, the assay is an alternative method to&#160;opsono-phagocytic killing assays. An advantage of the opsono-adherence&#160;assay is the option of using inactivated pathogens and mammalian cell lines, which allows standardization across multiple experiments. The use of an inactivated pathogen in the assay also facilitates work with biosafety level 3 infectious agents and other virulent pathogens. In our work, the opsono-adherence assay was used to assess the functional ability of antibodies, from sera of animals immunized with an anthrax capsule-based vaccine, to induce adherence of fixed Bacillus anthracis to a mouse macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Automated fluorescence microscopy was used to capture images of bacilli adhering to macrophages. Increased adherence was correlated with the presence of anti-capsule antibodies in the serum. Non-human primates that exhibited high serum anti-capsule antibody concentrations were protected from anthrax challenge. Thus, the opsono-adherence assay can be used to elucidate the biological functions of antigen specific antibodies in sera, to evaluate the efficacy of vaccine candidates and other therapeutics, and to serve as a possible correlate of immunity.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;

This section shows representative micrographs collected during an OAA experiment along with results&#160;showing that the OAA can be used to examine the biological function of antibodies. Here, the assay was successfully used to evaluate the efficacy of an anthrax vaccine candidate. It is critical to verify the state of encapsulation on the bacilli as little to no encapsulation causes them to adhere to host cells, producing a high background. Figure 1 is an image of B. anthracis Ame...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens at JoVE.com

Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

The opsono-adherence assay is an alternative method to the opsono-phagocytic killing assay to evaluate the opsonic functions of antibodies in vaccine development.

Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

The opsono-adherence assay is a functional assay that enumerates the attachment of bacterial pathogens to professional phagocytes. Because adherence is ...

opsono-adherence-assay-to-evaluate-functional-antibodies-vaccine

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Immunology and Infection

3.4K Views.  United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases. De opsono-therapietrouwtest is een alternatieve methode voor de opsono-fagocytische moordtest om de opsonische functies van antilichamen in de ontwikkeling van vaccins te evalueren.

Video: Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

In Vitro Assay of Bacterial Adhesion onto Mammalian Epithelial Cells

To cause infections, bacteria must colonize their host. Bacterial pathogens express various molecules or structures able to promote attachment to host cells1. These adhesins rely on interactions with host cell surface receptors or soluble proteins acting as a bridge between bacteria and host. Adhesion is a critical first step prior to invasion and/or secretion of toxins, thus it is a key event to be studied in bacterial pathogenesis. Furthermore, adhered bacteria often induce exquisitely fine-tuned cellular responses, the studies of which have given birth to the field of 'cellular microbiology'2. Robust assays for bacterial adhesion on host cells and their invasion therefore play key roles in bacterial pathogenesis studies and have long been used in many pioneer laboratories3,4. These assays are now practiced by most laboratories working on bacterial pathogenesis.
Here, we describe a standard adherence assay illustrating the contribution of a specific adhesin. We use the Escherichia coli strain 27875, a human pathogenic strain expressing the autotransporter Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence (AIDA). As a control, we use a mutant strain lacking the aidA gene, 2787&Delta;aidA (F. Berthiaume and M. Mourez, unpublished), and a commercial laboratory strain of E. coli, C600 (New England Biolabs). The bacteria are left to adhere to the cells from the commonly used HEp-2 human epithelial cell line. This assay has been less extensively described before6.

In Vitro Assay of Bacterial Adhesion onto Mammalian Epithelial Cells

This protocol is a simple bacterial adhesion assay consisting in counting the numbers of bacterial colony forming units that are adhered onto cultured cells. The assay is robust, independent of the adhesin studied, and numerous variations are used in most laboratories working on bacterial pathogenesis.

To cause infections, bacteria must colonize their host. Bacterial pathogens express various molecules or structures able to promote attachment to host ...

A Functional Whole Blood Assay to Measure Viability of Mycobacteria, using Reporter-Gene Tagged BCG or M.Tb (BCG lux/M.Tb lux)

Functional assays have long played a key role in measuring of immunogenicity of a given vaccine. This is conventionally expressed as serum bactericidal titers. Studies of serum bactericidal titers in response to childhood vaccines have enabled us to develop and validate cut-off levels for protective immune responses and such cut-offs are in routine use. No such assays have been taken forward into the routine assessment of vaccines that induce primarily cell-mediated immunity in the form of effector T cell responses, such as TB vaccines. In the animal model, the performance of a given vaccine candidate is routinely evaluated in standardized bactericidal assays, and all current novel TB-vaccine candidates have been subjected to this step in their evaluation prior to phase 1 human trials. The assessment of immunogenicity and therefore likelihood of protective efficacy of novel anti-TB vaccines should ideally undergo a similar step-wise evaluation in the human models now, including measurements in bactericidal assays.
Bactericidal assays in the context of tuberculosis vaccine research are already well established in the animal models, where they are applied to screen potentially promising vaccine candidates. Reduction of bacterial load in various organs functions as the main read-out of immunogenicity. However, no such assays have been incorporated into clinical trials for novel anti-TB vaccines to date.
Although there is still uncertainty about the exact mechanisms that lead to killing of mycobacteria inside human macrophages, the interaction of macrophages and T cells with mycobacteria is clearly required. The assay described in this paper represents a novel generation of bactericidal assays that enables studies of such key cellular components with all other cellular and humoral factors present in whole blood without making assumptions about their relative individual contribution. The assay described by our group uses small volumes of whole blood and has already been employed in studies of adults and children in TB-endemic settings. We have shown immunogenicity of the BCG vaccine, increased growth of mycobacteria in HIV-positive patients, as well as the effect of anti-retroviral therapy and Vitamin D on mycobacterial survival in vitro. Here we summarise the methodology, and present our reproducibility data using this relatively simple, low-cost and field-friendly model.
Note: Definitions/Abbreviations
BCG lux = M. bovis BCG, Montreal strain, transformed with shuttle plasmid pSMT1 carrying the luxAB genes from Vibrio harveyi, under the control of the mycobacterial GroEL (hsp60) promoter. 
CFU = Colony Forming Unit (a measure of mycobacterial viability).

A Functional Whole Blood Assay to Measure Viability of Mycobacteria, using Reporter-Gene Tagged BCG or M.Tb BCG lux/M.Tb lux

We describe an alternative approach to the enumeration of mycobacteria in vitro, which uses reporter-gene tagged mycobacteria instead of colony-forming units (CFU). &#x201C;Survival&#x201D; of organisms as well as host response-markers are measured simultaneously, providing a low-cost, versatile and functional system for studies of host/pathogen interactions in the context of tuberculosis.

Functional assays have long played a key role in measuring of immunogenicity of a given vaccine. This is conventionally expressed as serum bactericidal ...

Using the Overlay Assay to Qualitatively Measure Bacterial Production of and Sensitivity to Pneumococcal Bacteriocins

Streptococcus pneumoniae colonizes the highly diverse polymicrobial community of the nasopharynx where it must compete with resident organisms. We have shown that bacterially produced antimicrobial peptides (bacteriocins) dictate the outcome of these competitive interactions. All fully-sequenced pneumococcal strains harbor a bacteriocin-like peptide (blp) locus. The blp locus encodes for a range of diverse bacteriocins and all of the highly conserved components needed for their regulation, processing, and secretion. The diversity of the bacteriocins found in the bacteriocin immunity region (BIR) of the locus is a major contributor of pneumococcal competition. Along with the bacteriocins, immunity genes are found in the BIR and are needed to protect the producer cell from the effects of its own bacteriocin. The overlay assay is a quick method for examining a large number of strains for competitive interactions mediated by bacteriocins. The overlay assay also allows for the characterization of bacteriocin-specific immunity, and detection of secreted quorum sensing peptides. The assay is performed by pre-inoculating an agar plate with a strain to be tested for bacteriocin production followed by application of a soft agar overlay containing a strain to be tested for bacteriocin sensitivity. A zone of clearance surrounding the stab indicates that the overlay strain is sensitive to the bacteriocins produced by the pre-inoculated strain. If no zone of clearance is observed, either the overlay strain is immune to the bacteriocins being produced or the pre-inoculated strain does not produce bacteriocins. To determine if the blp locus is functional in a given strain, the overlay assay can be adapted to evaluate for peptide pheromone secretion by the pre-inoculated strain. In this case, a series of four lacZ-reporter strains with different pheromone specificity are used in the overlay.

Competition in Streptococcus pneumoniae is mediated by bacteriocins, small antimicrobial peptides with inhibitory activity towards pneumococcus and other related species.&#160; Here we describe an optimized bacterial overlay assay that allows for the characterization of bacteriocin activity and inhibitory spectrum, bacteriocin-specific immunity, and detection of secreted quorum sensing peptides.

Streptococcus pneumoniae colonizes the highly diverse polymicrobial community of the nasopharynx where it must compete with resident organisms.  We have ...

In Vivo Assay for Detection of Antigen-specific T-cell Cytolytic Function Using a Vaccination Model

Current methodologies for antigen-specific killing are limited to in vitro use or utilized in infectious disease models. However, there is not a protocol specifically intended to measure antigen-specific killing without an infection. This protocol is designed and describes methods to overcome these limitations by allowing for the detection of antigen-specific killing of a target cell by CD8+ T cells in vivo. This is accomplished by merging a vaccination model with a traditional CFSE-labeled target killing assay. This combination allows the researcher to assess the antigen-specific CTL potential directly and quickly as the assay is not dependent upon tumor growth or infection. In addition, the readout is based on flow cytometry and so should be readily accessible to most researchers. The major limitation of the study is identifying the timeline in vivo that is appropriate to the hypothesis being tested. Variations in antigen strength and mutations in the T cells that may result in differential cytolytic function need to be carefully assessed to determine the optimal time for cell harvest and assessment. The appropriate concentration of peptide for vaccination has been optimized for hgp10025-33 and OVA257-264, but further validation would be needed for other peptides that may be more appropriate to a given study. Overall, this protocol allows a quick assessment of killing function in vivo and can be adapted to any given antigen.

In Vivo Assay for Detection of Antigen-specific T-cell Cytolytic Function Using a Vaccination Model

The goal of this protocol is to allow for detection of in vivo antigen-specific killing of a target cell in a murine model.

Current methodologies for antigen-specific killing are limited to in vitro use or utilized in infectious disease models. However, there is not a protocol ...

Evaluation of Host-Pathogen Responses and Vaccine Efficacy in Mice

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a striking increase in life expectancy around the globe. Nonetheless, determining vaccine efficacy remains a challenge. Emerging evidence suggests that the current acellular vaccine (aPV) for Bordetella pertussis (B. pertussis) induces suboptimal immunity. Therefore, a major challenge is designing a next-generation vaccine that induces protective immunity without the adverse side effects of a whole-cell vaccine (wPV). Here we describe a protocol that we used to test the efficacy of a promising, novel adjuvant that skews immune responses to a protective Th1/Th17 phenotype and promotes a better clearance of a B. pertussis challenge from the murine respiratory tract. This article describes the protocol for mouse immunization, bacterial inoculation, tissue harvesting, and analysis of immune responses. Using this method, within our model, we have successfully elucidated crucial mechanisms elicited by a promising, next-generation acellular pertussis vaccine. This method can be applied to any infectious disease model in order to determine vaccine efficacy.

Here we present an elegant protocol for in vivo evaluation of vaccine effectiveness and host immune responses. This protocol can be adapted for vaccine models that study viral, bacterial, or parasitic pathogens.

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a ...

Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental procedure in which phagocytic cells are co-cultured with bacterial units. The immune cells will phagocytose and kill the bacterial cultures in a complement-dependent manner. The efficiency of the immune-mediated cell killing is dependent on a number of factors and can be used to determine how different bacterial cultures compare with regard to resistance to cell death. In this way, the efficacy of potential immune-based therapeutics can be assessed against specific bacterial strains and/or serotypes. In this protocol, we describe a simplified OPKA that utilizes basic culture conditions and cell counting to determine bacterial cell viability after co-culture with treatment conditions and HL-60 immune cells. This method has been successfully utilized with a number of different pneumococcal serotypes, capsular and acapsular strains, and other bacterial species. The advantages of this OPKA protocol are its simplicity, versatility (as this assay is not limited to antibody treatments as opsonins), and minimization of time and reagents to assess basic experimental groups.

This opsonophagocytic killing assay is used to compare the ability of phagocytic immune cells to respond to and kill bacteria based on different treatments and/or conditions. Classically, this assay serves as the gold&#160;standard for assessing effector functions of antibodies raised against a bacterium as opsonin.

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental ...

In Vitro Cellular Activity Evaluation of the Nanoemulsion Vaccine Adjuvant Ophiopogonin D

As a principal ingredient of vaccines, adjuvants can directly induce or enhance the powerful, widespread, innate, and adaptive immune responses associated with antigens. Ophiopogonin D (OP-D), a purified component extracted from the plant Ophiopogon japonicus, has been found to be useful as a vaccine adjuvant. The problems of the low solubility and toxicity of OP-D can be effectively overcome by using a low-energy emulsification method to prepare nanoemulsion ophiopogonin D (NOD). In this article, a series of in vitro protocols for cellular activity evaluation are examined. The cytotoxic effects of L929 were determined using a cell counting kit-8 assay. Then, the secreted cytokine levels and corresponding immune cell numbers after the stimulation and culture of splenocytes from immunized mice were detected by ELISA and ELISpot methods. In addition, the antigen uptake ability in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs), which were isolated from C57BL/6 mice and matured after incubation with GM-CSF plus IL-4, was observed by laser scanning confocal microscopy (CLSM). Importantly, macrophage activation was confirmed by measuring the levels of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;) cytokines by ELISA kits after coculturing peritoneal macrophages (PMs) from blank mice with the adjuvant for 24 h. It is hoped that this protocol will provide other researchers with direct and effective experimental approaches to evaluate the cellular response efficacies of novel vaccine adjuvants.

In Vitro Cellular Activity Evaluation of the Nanoemulsion Vaccine Adjuvant Ophiopogonin D

The protocol presents detailed methods for evaluating whether the nanoemulsion ophiopogonin D adjuvant promotes effective cellular immune responses.

As a principal ingredient of vaccines, adjuvants can directly induce or enhance the powerful, widespread, innate, and adaptive immune responses associated ...

Evaluating Immunogenicity of Nanoemulsion&#45;Encapsulated Retinoic Acid in Mice

Cationic Nanoemulsion-Encapsulated Retinoic Acid as an Adjuvant to Promote OVA&#45;Specific Systemic and Mucosal Responses

Cationic nanostructures have emerged as an adjuvant and antigen delivery system that enhances dendritic cell maturation, ROS generation, and antigen uptake and then promotes antigen-specific immune responses. In recent years, retinoic acid (RA) has received increasing attention due to its effect in activating the mucosal immune response; however, in order to use RA as a mucosal adjuvant, it is necessary to solve the problem of its dissolution, loading, and delivery. Here, we describe a cationic nanoemulsion-encapsulated retinoic acid (CNE-RA) delivery system composed of the cationic lipid 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOTAP), retinoic acid, squalene as the oil phase, polysorbate 80 as surfactant, and sorbitan trioleate 85 as co-surfactant. Its physical and chemical properties were characterized using dynamic light scattering and a spectrophotometer. Immunization of mice with the mixture of antigen (ovalbumin, OVA) and CNE-RA significantly elevated the levels of anti-OVA secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) in vaginal lavage fluid and the small intestinal lavage fluid of mice compared with OVA alone. This protocol describes a detailed method for the preparation, characterization, and evaluation of the adjuvant effect of CNE-RA.

Author Spotlight: Development and Evaluation of a Cationic Nanoemulsion&#45;Encapsulated Retinoic Acid System for Mucosal Vaccination

In this protocol, we developed a cationic nanoemulsion-encapsulated retinoic acid (RA) to be used as an adjuvant to promote antigen-specific systemic and mucosal responses. By adding the FDA-approved RA to the nanoemulsion, antigen-specific sIgA was promoted in the vagina and small intestine after intramuscular injection of the nanoemulsion.

Cationic nanostructures have emerged as an adjuvant and antigen delivery system that enhances dendritic cell maturation, ROS generation, and antigen ...

Accelerating Tuberculosis Determination Using the Micro-CFU Method

Micro-Colony Forming Unit Assay for Efficacy Evaluation of Vaccines Against Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB), the leading cause of death worldwide by an infectious agent, killed 1.6 million people in 2022, only being surpassed by COVID-19 during the 2019-2021 pandemic. The disease is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb). The Mycobacterium bovis strain Bacillus Calmette-Gu&#233;rin (BCG), the only TB vaccine, is the oldest licensed vaccine in the world, still in use. Currently, there are 12 vaccines in clinical trials and dozens of vaccines under pre-clinical development. The method of choice used to assess the efficacy of TB vaccines in pre-clinical studies is the enumeration of bacterial colonies by the colony-forming units (CFU) assay. This time-consuming assay takes 4 to 6 weeks to conclude, requires substantial laboratory and incubator space, has high reagent costs, and is prone to contamination. Here we describe an optimized method for colony enumeration, the micro-CFU (mCFU), that offers a simple and rapid solution to analyze M.tb vaccine efficacy results. The mCFU assay requires tenfold fewer reagents, reduces the incubation period threefold, taking 1 to 2 weeks to conclude, reduces lab space and reagent cost, and minimizes the health and safety risks associated with working with large numbers of M.tb. Moreover, to evaluate the efficacy of a TB vaccine, samples may be obtained from a variety of sources, including tissues from vaccinated animals infected with Mycobacteria. We also describe an optimized method to produce a unicellular, uniform, and high-quality mycobacterial culture for infection studies. Finally, we propose that these methods should be universally adopted for pre-clinical studies of vaccine efficacy determination, ultimately leading to time reduction in the development of vaccines against TB.

Author Spotlight: Optimizing CFU Determination for Efficient Assessment of TB Vaccine Efficacy and Antigen Presentation Analysis 

The determination of colony-forming units (CFU) is the gold-standard technique for quantifying bacteria, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis which can take weeks to form visible colonies. Here we describe a micro-CFU for CFU determination with increased time efficiency, reduced lab space and reagent cost, and scalability to medium and high throughput experiments.

Tuberculosis (TB), the leading cause of death worldwide by an infectious agent, killed 1.6 million people in 2022, only being surpassed by COVID-19 during ...

Medicine

An Opsono-Adherence Assay for Assessing the Opsonization of Encapsulated Bacteria by Anti-Capsule Antibodies

Source: Chua, J., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/60873">Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2020)
This video demonstrates an opsono-adherence assay for examining the interaction between opsonized bacteria and immune cells. Fluorescently labeled bacteria, treated with test serum containing anti-capsule antibodies, are incubated with macrophages. After staining the macrophages with fluorescence, the attached bacteria on the macrophage surface are observed under a microscope for visualization.

Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

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