The author would like to thank Minna T&#246;rr&#246;nen, Riikka Ven&#228;l&#228;inen, Heikki Karhunen, and Inkeri Niemi from the National Laboratory Animal Center for their assistance in animal work. This study is supported by Finnish Academy, ERC, and CardioReGenix EU Horizon grant.

All experiments are approved by the Animal Experiment Board of the University of Eastern Finland. This protocol describes a clinically relevant treadmill exercise test for pigs to evaluate the safety and efficacy of novel therapies for heart diseases. Female domestic pigs weighing 25-80 kg were used for the present study. The animals were obtained from a commercial source (see Table of Materials).
1. Setting up the running track
<ol>
	<li>Set up the running track so that animals can only move one way. Use gates and hatches to prevent the animals from moving back. The floor plan of the running track is shown in Figure 1, and an example of a running track is in Figure 2.</li>
	<li>Ensure the treadmill (see Table of Materials) has enough space to allow incline changes.</li>
	<li>Ensure the treadmill has an adjustable width to prevent the animal from turning during the run.</li>
	<li>Use transparent plastic to make the front wall of the treadmill. This prevents the animal from running away from the treadmill, but still allows the animal to see through the wall. 
	NOTE: It is essential that the animals can see through the front wall, as our experience suggests that pigs are more motivated to run if they see their fellow pigs on the other side of the wall.</li>
	<li>Place an ECG monitor and defibrillator (see Table of Materials) next to the treadmill. 
	NOTE: Fatal arrhythmias may occur during the stress test, especially if the pig has myocardial ischemia14,15,16.</li>
	<li>Ensure the running track includes a water point where the animals can drink and cool off after the run.</li>
</ol>
2. Acclimation period of the pigs before the test
<ol>
	<li>House the animals for 2 weeks before starting the experiments.</li>
	<li>During the 1st week of acclimation, ensure the animals get accustomed to their handlers and new housing environment, excluding the running track.</li>
	<li>During the 2nd week of the acclimation period, ensure the animals get accustomed to the running track.</li>
	<li>Start accustoming so that the animals get familiar with the running track. First, keep all the gates open, so the animals can walk freely on the track and explore the environment.</li>
	<li>When the animals are more familiar with the track, turn on the treadmill and let the animal run for short periods at a time, such as 7 min. The length of the running times must be extended daily. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Remember to reward the animals during the acclimation period. For example, the pigs were rewarded with unsalted popcorn in the present study.</li>
</ol>
3. The exercise test
NOTE: Pigs should be fasted at least 2 h before the exercise test or given only a tiny portion of food before the run.
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the treadmill and set the incline to 5%-10%.</li>
	<li>As soon as the animal is on the treadmill, start the treadmill with a starting speed of 2 km/h.</li>
	<li>Increase the speed by 0.5 km/h every 60 s until 5 km/h is reached. The total running time is 15 min.</li>
	<li>In case the animal cannot run the entire time at the maximum speed, perform the steps below.
	<ol>
		<li>If the pig is not running as fast as a selected speed, gently push it from the back, as this may give the animal the feeling that it needs to run faster without slowing down.</li>
		<li>Try gently pushing the animal a maximum of three times; after that, slow down the speed by 0.5 km/h at a time until the pig can handle the speed. Do not slow down to below 2 km/h.</li>
		<li>If the animal refuses to run even at a slow speed, turn off the treadmill and stop the test.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. ECG monitoring during the exercise test
<ol>
	<li>Place ECG electrodes (see Table of Materials) in anatomical locations which have minimal movement during the run, such as scapulas or the chest. 
	NOTE: Use ECG electrodes designed for exercise tests to achieve better adhesion to the skin. Remember to shave hair from the area where the ECG electrodes will be placed.</li>
	<li>Record the heart rate changes during the run. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Our experience suggests that ST segment analyses are often complicated due to movement and other artifacts. Rhythm monitoring can also be done using an implantable loop recorder or pacemaker.</li>
</ol>
5. Data collection
<ol>
	<li>Record the run distance, total time, and speed every time the speed is changed. 
	NOTE: Modern treadmills may collect a lot of other data, so it is essential to familiarize yourself with the treadmill manual to utilize the equipment&#39;s full potential.</li>
	<li>Note possible changes in animal behavior, such as limping. 
	NOTE: If needed, contact a veterinarian and make sure that the animal receives necessary analgesia. Remove the animal from future exercises until it fully recovers.</li>
</ol>
6. Post-procedural care
<ol>
	<li>Ensure the animal has access to the water point.</li>
	<li>Reward the animal, for example, with treats or toys.</li>
	<li>Monitor the animal for 30 min after the run for possible adverse effects.</li>
</ol>

Evaluation of Exercise Tolerance of Pigs Subjected to Exercise

<ol>
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G., Korpisalo, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Angiogenic+gene+therapy+in+cardiovascular+diseases:+dream+or+vision.">Angiogenic gene therapy in cardiovascular diseases: dream or vision.</a> European Heart Journal. 38 (18), 1365-1371 (2017).</li><li>L&#228;hteenvuo, J., Yl&#228;-Herttuala, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advances+and+challenges+in+cardiovascular+gene+therapy.">Advances and challenges in cardiovascular gene therapy.</a> Human Gene Therapy. 28 (11), 1024-1032 (2017).</li><li>Ross, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Importance+of+assessing+cardiorespiratory+fitness+in+clinical+practice:+a+case+for+fitness+as+a+clinical+vital+sign:+a+scientific+statement+from+the+American+Heart+Association.">Importance of assessing cardiorespiratory fitness in clinical practice: a case for fitness as a clinical vital sign: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association.</a> Circulation. 134 (24), e653-e699 (2016).</li><li>Sietsema, K. E., Stringer, W. W., Sue, D. Y., Ward, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Wasserman &amp; Whipp's Principles of Exercise Testing and Interpretation. 6th. , (2021).</li><li>Darmadi, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exercise-induced+sustained+ventricular+tachycardia+without+structural+heart+disease:+a+case+report.">Exercise-induced sustained ventricular tachycardia without structural heart disease: a case report.</a> The American Journal of Case Reports. 21, e928242 (2020).</li><li>Casella, G., Pavesi, P. 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T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+anatomic+and+physiologic+overview+of+the+porcine+heart.">A comparative anatomic and physiologic overview of the porcine heart.</a> Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. 53 (5), 432-438 (2014).</li><li>Korpela, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=AAV2-VEGF-B+gene+therapy+failed+to+induce+angiogenesis+in+ischemic+porcine+myocardium+due+to+inflammatory+responses.">AAV2-VEGF-B gene therapy failed to induce angiogenesis in ischemic porcine myocardium due to inflammatory responses.</a> Gene Therapy. 29 (10-11), 643-652 (2022).</li><li>Swindle, M. 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The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

This large animal exercise test mimics the test used in clinics, reducing the gap in endpoints between the preclinical studies and clinical trials. It can be applied to evaluate the efficacy of new treatments for severe cardiovascular diseases, such as arteriosclerosis obliterans, heart failure, and ischemic heart diseases. The time points applied in this protocol may vary depending on the tested treatment. This protocol has been standardized based on a long experience of working with large animals and can be used to eva...

Chronic cardiovascular diseases are significant causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide1,2. Although current treatments are effective for the majority of patients, many still cannot benefit from the current therapies due to, for example, diffuse chronic disease or comorbidities. In addition, in some patients, cardiac symptoms are not relieved by the available treatments, and their cardiovascular disease progresses despite optimal medical therapy3. Thus, there is a clear need to develop novel treatment options for severe cardiovascular diseases.
During the past several years, new molecular pathways and ways to manipulate these targets have been discovered, making gene therapy, cell therapy, and other novel therapies a realistic option for treating severe cardiovascular diseases4. However, after promising preclinical results, many cardiovascular applications have failed to fulfill expectations in clinical trials. In spite of the poor efficacy in clinical trials, several trials have established good safety profiles of novel therapies5,6,7,8,9. Thus, bringing new cardiovascular therapies to patients will require improved approaches and better preclinical models, study settings, and endpoints in preclinical studies that can predict clinical efficacy.
In animal models, the emphasis has usually been on easily quantifiable endpoints, such as the number and area of capillary vessels calculated from histological sections or parameters from left ventricle imaging at rest and under pharmacological stress. In clinical trials, many endpoints have been more subjective, such as exercise tolerance or symptom relief4. Thus, it is likely that the endpoints in preclinical studies and clinical trials measure different aspects of the applied therapy. For example, an increase in the quantity of blood vessels does not always correlate with better perfusion, cardiac function, or exercise tolerance. Nevertheless, both types of endpoints are required to develop successful therapeutic approaches10.&#160;Still, the main goal is always to alleviate symptoms and to improve the patient&#39;s prognosis and quality of life. To achieve this, endpoint measurements must be better matched between preclinical and clinical studies4.
Cardiorespiratory fitness reflects the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to provide oxygen during sustained physical activity, and thus it quantifies the functional capacity of an individual. Functional capacity is a key prognostic marker as it is a strong independent predictor for the risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality11. Improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with a reduced risk of mortality12. Exercise tests are suitable for evaluating aerobic performance and treatment responses in cardiovascular diseases. Depending on the availability, tests are performed on a bicycle ergometer or a treadmill. A gradual increase in the workload per minute is usually used, and abrupt increases are avoided; this leads to a linear physiological response. The most important variables in the exercise tests include the total exercise time, metabolic equivalents (METs) achieved, heart rate, and changes on an electrocardiogram (ECG) line between the QRS complex (Q, R, and S waves) and T-wave (ST segment). Clinical stress tests have low costs and are easily accessible13. For these reasons, stress tests, such as the 6 min walking test, have been widely used in clinics and should also be used in the preclinical evaluation of new therapies.
To our knowledge, there are no well-described large animal models for evaluating the functional efficacy of gene therapy or other novel therapies. Therefore, the clinically relevant exercise test provides an excellent perspective for evaluating the efficiency of these new therapies in the preclinical setting.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Defibrillator</td>
			<td>Zoll M series</td>
			<td>TO9K116790</td>
			<td>All portable defribrillators will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Defibrillator pads</td>
			<td>Philips</td>
			<td>M3713A</td>
			<td>All pads work, as long as the pads are compatible with the defibrillator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECG electrodes</td>
			<td>Several providers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prefer ECG electrodes designed for exercise tests</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Loop recorder</td>
			<td>Abbott Oy</td>
			<td>DM3500</td>
			<td>Optional for rhythm monitoring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Patient monitor</td>
			<td>Schiller Argus LCM Plus</td>
			<td>7,80,05,935</td>
			<td>All portable ecg monitors will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pigs</td>
			<td>Emolandia Oy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Treadmill</td>
			<td>NordicTrack</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>All treadmills with adjustable incline and speed are suitable for the exercise test.&#160; The treadmill should be as long and wide as possible.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasound system</td>
			<td>Philips EPIQ 7 ultrasound</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Various building materials</td>
			<td>Several providers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For building fences, ramps and gates according to the Figure 1 and Figure 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Various treats for the animals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

exercise test for evaluation of the functional efficacy of the pig cardiovascular system

Despite the progress in treatments, cardiovascular diseases are still one of the biggest causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Gene therapy-based therapeutic angiogenesis is a promising approach for treating patients with significant symptoms, despite optimal pharmacological therapy and invasive procedures. However, many promising cardiovascular gene therapy techniques have failed to accomplish expectations in clinical trials. One explanation is a mismatch between preclinical and clinical endpoints used to measure efficacy. In animal models, the emphasis has usually been on easily quantifiable endpoints, such as the number and area of the capillary vessels calculated from histological sections. Apart from mortality and morbidity, endpoints in clinical trials are subjective, such as exercise tolerance and quality of life. However, the preclinical and clinical endpoints likely measure different aspects of the applied therapy. Nevertheless, both types of endpoints are required to develop successful therapeutic approaches. In clinics, the main goal is always to alleviate patients' symptoms and improve their prognosis and quality of life. To achieve better predictive data from preclinical studies, endpoint measurements must be better matched to those in clinical studies. Here, we introduce a protocol for a clinically relevant treadmill exercise test in pigs. This study aims to: (1) provide a reliable exercise test in pigs that can be used to evaluate the safety and functional efficacy of gene therapy and other novel therapies, and (2) better match the endpoints between preclinical and clinical studies.

One must have experience working with large animals to succeed with this protocol. Researchers need to be able to evaluate whether an animal stops running due to fatigue or lack of motivation. Recording the speed and distance may help to evaluate this, as usually, animals lacking motivation stop running totally, whereas fatigued animals keep running after slowing down the speed (Figure 3). If necessary, the protocol can be repeated the next day if the results seem unreliable.
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Exercise Test for Evaluation of the Functional Efficacy of the Pig Cardiovascular System at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Exercise Test for Evaluation of the Functional Efficacy of the Pig Cardiovascular System  

The present protocol describes a large animal exercise test model to assess the functional capacity of the cardiovascular system for evaluating the efficiency of new therapies in the preclinical setting. It is comparable to a clinical exercise test.

Exercise Test for Evaluation of the Functional Efficacy of the Pig Cardiovascular System

Despite the progress in treatments, cardiovascular diseases are still one of the biggest causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Gene therapy-based ...

The aim of the study is to provide a reliable exercise test for pigs that can be used to evaluate the safety and functional efficacy of gene therapy and other novel therapies. Usually, cardiovascular animal studies emphasize easily quantifiable endpoints just as capillary area calculated from the histological sections. In contrast, clinical studies use more subjective endpoints such as excess tolerance.This protocol better matches the endpoints between pre-clinical and clinical studies. The previously published methods with longer running sessions aim to evaluate chronic exercise adaptations, whereas the presented method is more suitable for evaluating cardio respiratory fitness.

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1.3K Views.  University of Eastern Finland. The aim of the study is to provide a reliable exercise test for pigs that can be used to evaluate the safety and functional efficacy of gene therapy and other novel therapies. Usually, cardiovascular animal studies emphasize easily quantifiable endpoints just as capillary area calculated from the histological sections. In contrast, clinical studies use more subjective endpoints such as excess tolerance.This protocol better matches the endpoints between pre-clinical and clinical studies...

Video: Author Spotlight: Exercise Test for Evaluation of the Functional Efficacy of the Pig Cardiovascular System  

Analysis of the Ambient Particulate Matter-induced Chromosomal Aberrations Using an In Vitro System

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is a major world health concern, which may damage various cellular components, including the nuclear genetic material. To assess the impact of PM on nuclear genetic integrity, structural chromosomal aberrations are scored in the metaphase spreads of mouse RAW264.7 macrophage cells. PM is collected from ambient air with a high volume total suspended particles sampler. The collected material is solubilized and filtered to retain the water-soluble, fine portion. The particles are characterized for chemical composition by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Different concentrations of particle suspension are added onto an in vitro culture of RAW264.7 mouse macrophages for a total exposure time of 72 hr, along with untreated control cells. At the end of exposure, the culture is treated with colcemid to arrest cells in metaphase. Cells are then harvested, treated with hypotonic solution, fixed in acetomethanol, dropped onto glass slides and finally stained with Giemsa solution. Slides are examined to assess the structural chromosomal aberrations (CAs) in metaphase spreads at 1,000X magnification using a bright-field microscope. 50 to 100 metaphase spread are scored for each treatment group. This technique is adapted for the detection of structural chromosomal aberrations (CAs), such as chromatid-type breaks, chromatid-type exchanges, acentric fragments, dicentric and ring chromosomes, double minutes, endoreduplication, and Robertsonian translocations in vitro after exposure to PM. It is a powerful method to associate a well-established cytogenetic endpoint to epigenetic alterations.

Analysis of the Ambient Particulate Matter-induced Chromosomal Aberrations Using an In Vitro System

This protocol describes techniques for the quantification and characterization of chromosomal aberrations in vitro in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages after treatment with ambient air particulate matter.

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is a major world health concern, which may damage various cellular components, including the nuclear genetic material. ...

Inducible T7 RNA Polymerase-mediated Multigene Expression System, pMGX

Co-expression of multiple proteins is increasingly essential for synthetic biology, studying protein-protein complexes, and characterizing and harnessing biosynthetic pathways. In this manuscript, the use of a highly effective system for the construction of multigene synthetic operons under the control of an inducible T7 RNA polymerase is described. This system allows many genes to be expressed simultaneously from one plasmid. Here, a set of four related vectors, pMGX-A, pMGX-hisA, pMGX-K, and pMGX-hisK, with either the ampicillin or kanamycin resistance selectable marker (A and K) and either possessing or lacking an N-terminal hexahistidine tag (his) are disclosed. Detailed protocols for the construction of synthetic operons using this vector system are provided along with the corresponding data, showing that a pMGX-based system containing five genes can be readily constructed and used to produce all five encoded proteins in Escherichia coli. This system and protocol enables researchers to routinely express complex multi-component modules and pathways in E. coli.

This study describes methods for the T7-mediated co-expression of multiple genes from a single plasmid in Escherichia coli using the pMGX plasmid system.

Co-expression of multiple proteins is increasingly essential for synthetic biology, studying protein-protein complexes, and characterizing and harnessing ...

Determination of the Optimal Chromosomal Location(s) for a DNA Element in Escherichia coli Using a Novel Transposon-mediated Approach

The optimal chromosomal position(s) of a given DNA element was/were determined by transposon-mediated random insertion followed by fitness selection. In bacteria, the impact of the genetic context on the function of a genetic element can be difficult to assess. Several mechanisms, including topological effects, transcriptional interference from neighboring genes, and/or replication-associated gene dosage, may affect the function of a given genetic element. Here, we describe a method that permits the random integration of a DNA element into the chromosome of Escherichia coli and select the most favorable locations using a simple growth competition experiment. The method takes advantage of a well-described transposon-based system of random insertion, coupled with a selection of the fittest clone(s) by growth advantage, a procedure that is easily adjustable to experimental needs. The nature of the fittest clone(s) can be determined by whole-genome sequencing on a complex multi-clonal population or by easy gene walking for the rapid identification of selected clones. Here, the non-coding DNA region DARS2, which controls the initiation of chromosome replication in E. coli, was used as an example. The function of DARS2 is known to be affected by replication-associated gene dosage; the closer DARS2 gets to the origin of DNA replication, the more active it becomes. DARS2 was randomly inserted into the chromosome of a DARS2-deleted strain. The resultant clones containing individual insertions were pooled and competed against one another for hundreds of generations. Finally, the fittest clones were characterized and found to contain DARS2 inserted in close proximity to the original DARS2 location.

Determination of the Optimal Chromosomal Locations for a DNA Element in Escherichia coli Using a Novel Transposon-mediated Approach

Here, the power of a transposon-mediated random insertion of a non-coding DNA element was used to resolve its optimal chromosomal position.

The optimal chromosomal position(s) of a given DNA element was/were determined by transposon-mediated random insertion followed by fitness selection. In ...

Measuring Exercise Levels in Drosophila melanogaster Using the Rotating Exercise Quantification System (REQS)

Drosophila melanogaster is a new model organism for studies in exercise biology. To date, two main exercise systems, the Power Tower and the Treadwheel have been described. However, a method to measure the amount of additional animal activity induced through the exercise treatment has been lacking. The Rotating Exercise Quantification System (REQS) fills this need, providing a measure of animal activity for animals experiencing rotational exercise. This protocol details how to use the REQS to assess animal activity during rotational exercise and illustrates the type of data that can be generated. Here, we demonstrate how the REQS is used to measure sex- and strain-specific differences in exercise induced activity. The REQS can also be used to evaluate the impact of various other experimental parameters such as age, diet, or population size on exercise induced activity. In addition, it can be used to compare the efficacy of different exercise training protocols. Importantly, it provides an opportunity to standardize exercise treatments between strains, allowing the researcher to achieve equal amounts of activity between groups if needed. Thus, the REQS is a notable new resource for exercise biologists working with the Drosophila model system and complements existing exercise systems.

Measuring Exercise Levels in Drosophila melanogaster Using the Rotating Exercise Quantification System REQS

The Rotating Exercise Quantification System (REQS) can induce exercise in Drosophila melanogaster through rotation while simultaneously measuring the amount of activity performed by the animals. Here, we present a point-by-point protocol detailing how to measure activity levels of animals experiencing rotational exercise treatments using the REQS.

Drosophila melanogaster is a new model organism for studies in exercise biology. To date, two main exercise systems, the Power Tower and the Treadwheel ...

The TreadWheel: Interval Training Protocol for Gently Induced Exercise in Drosophila melanogaster

The incidence of complex metabolic diseases has increased as a result of a widespread transition towards lifestyles of increased caloric intake and lowered activity levels. These multifactorial diseases arise from a combination of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors. One such complex disease is Metabolic Syndrome (MetS), which is a cluster of metabolic disorders, including hypertension, hyperglycemia, and abdominal obesity. Exercise and dietary intervention are the primary treatments recommended by doctors to mitigate obesity and its subsequent metabolic diseases. Exercise intervention, in particular aerobic interval training, stimulates favorable changes in the common risk factors for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), Cardiovascular Disease (CVD), and other conditions. With the influx of evidence describing the therapeutic effect exercise has on metabolic health, establishing a system that models exercise in a controlled setting provides a valuable tool for assessing the effects of exercise in an experimental context. Drosophila melanogaster is a great tool for investigating the physiological and molecular changes that result from exercise intervention. The flies have short lifespans and similar mechanisms of metabolizing nutrients when compared to humans. To induce exercise in Drosophila, we developed a machine called the TreadWheel, which utilizes the fly&#39;s innate, negative geotaxis tendency to gently induce climbing. This enables researchers to perform experiments on large cohorts of genetically diverse flies to better understand the genotype-by-environment interactions underlying the effects of exercise on metabolic health.

The TreadWheel: Interval Training Protocol for Gently Induced Exercise in Drosophila melanogaster

The TreadWheel uses rotational motion to gently induce exercise in adult Drosophila melanogaster by exploiting flies&#39; innate, negative geotaxis. It allows for analysis of the interactions between exercise and factors, such as genotype, sex, and diet, and their effect on physiological and molecular assays to assess metabolic health.

The incidence of complex metabolic diseases has increased as a result of a widespread transition towards lifestyles of increased caloric intake and ...

Induction and Evaluation of Inbreeding Crosses Using the Ant, Vollenhovia Emeryi

The genetic and molecular components of the sex-determination cascade have been extensively studied in the honeybee, Apis mellifera, a hymenopteran model organism. However, little is known about the sex-determination mechanisms found in other non-model hymenopteran taxa, such as ants. Because of the complex nature of the life cycles that have evolved in hymenopteran species, it is difficult to maintain and conduct experimental crosses between these organisms in the laboratory. Here, we describe the methods for conducting inbreeding crosses and for evaluating the success of those crosses in ant Vollenhovia emeryi. Inducing inbreeding in the laboratory using V. emeryi, is relatively simple because of the unique biology of the species. Specifically, this species produces androgenetic males, and female reproductives exhibit wing polymorphism, which simplifies identification of the phenotypes in genetic crosses. In addition, evaluating the success of inbreeding is straightforward as males can be produced continuously by inbreeding crosses, while normal males only appear during a well-defined reproductive season in the field. Our protocol allow for using V. emeryi as a model to investigate the genetic and molecular basis of the sex determination system in ant species.

Induction and Evaluation of Inbreeding Crosses Using the Ant, Vollenhovia Emeryi

In this protocol, methods for conducting inbreeding crosses, and for evaluating the success of those crosses, are described for the ant Vollenhovia emeryi. These protocols are important for experiments aimed at understanding the genetic basis of sex determination systems in Hymenoptera.

The genetic and molecular components of the sex-determination cascade have been extensively studied in the honeybee, Apis mellifera, a hymenopteran model ...

In vivo Application of the REMOTE-control System for the Manipulation of Endogenous Gene Expression

Here we describe a protocol for implementing the REMOTE-control system (Reversible Manipulation of Transcription at Endogenous loci), which allows for reversible and tunable expression control of an endogenous gene of interest in living model systems. The REMOTE-control system employs enhanced lac repression and tet activation systems to achieve down- or upregulation of a target gene within a single biological system. Tight repression can be achieved from repressor binding sites flexibly located far downstream of a transcription start site by inhibiting transcription elongation. Robust upregulation can be attained by enhancing the transcription of an endogenous gene by targeting tet transcriptional activators to the cognate promoter. This reversible and tunable expression control can be applied and withdrawn repeatedly in organisms. The potency and versatility of the system, as demonstrated for endogenous Dnmt1 here, will allow more precise in vivo functional analyses by enabling investigation of gene function at various expression levels and by testing the reversibility of a phenotype.

This protocol outlines the steps needed to generate a model system in which the transcription of an endogenous gene of interest can be conditionally controlled in live animals or cells using enhanced lac repressor and/or tet activator systems.

Here we describe a protocol for implementing the REMOTE-control system (Reversible Manipulation of Transcription at Endogenous loci), which allows for ...

Evaluation of a Universal Nested Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction for the Detection of Lyssaviruses

To detect rabies virus and other member species of the genus Lyssavirus within the family Rhabdoviridae, the pan-lyssavirus nested reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (nested RT-PCR) was developed to detect the conserved region of the nucleoprotein (N) gene of lyssaviruses. The method applies reverse transcription (RT) using viral RNA as template and oligo (dT)15 and random hexamers as primers to synthesize the viral complementary DNA (cDNA). Then, the viral cDNA is used as a template to amplify an 845 bp N gene fragment in first-round PCR using outer primers, followed by second-round nested PCR to amplify the final 371 bp fragment using inner primers. This method can detect different genetic clades of rabies viruses (RABV). The validation, using 9,624 brain specimens from eight domestic animal species in 10 years of clinical rabies diagnoses and surveillance in China, showed that the method has 100% sensitivity and 99.97% specificity in comparison with the direct fluorescent antibody test (FAT), the gold standard method recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). In addition, the method could also specifically amplify the targeted N gene fragment of 15 other approved and two novel lyssavirus species in the 10th Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) as evaluated by a mimic detection of synthesized N gene plasmids of all lyssaviruses. The method provides a convenient alternative to FAT for rabies diagnosis and has been approved as a National Standard (GB/T36789-2018) of China.

A pan-lyssavirus nested reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction has been developed to detect specifically all known lyssaviruses. Validation using rabies brain samples of different animal species showed that this method has a sensitivity and specificity equivalent to the gold standard fluorescent antibody test and could be used for routine rabies diagnosis.

To detect rabies virus and other member species of the genus Lyssavirus within the family Rhabdoviridae, the pan-lyssavirus nested reverse transcription ...

Use of Frozen Tissue in the Comet Assay for the Evaluation of DNA Damage

The comet assay is gaining popularity as a means to assess DNA damage in cultured cells and tissues, particularly following exposure to chemicals or other environmental stressors. Use of the comet assay in regulatory testing for genotoxic potential in rodents has been driven by adoption of an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guideline in 2014. Comet assay slides are typically prepared from fresh tissue at the time of necropsy; however, freezing tissue samples can avoid logistical challenges associated with simultaneous preparation of slides from multiple organs per animal and from many animals per study. Freezing also enables shipping samples from the exposure facility to a different laboratory for analysis, and storage of frozen tissue facilitates deferring a decision to generate DNA damage data for a given organ. The alkaline comet assay is useful for detecting exposure-related DNA double- and single-strand breaks, alkali-labile lesions, and strand breaks associated with incomplete DNA excision repair. However, DNA damage can also result from mechanical shearing or improper sample processing procedures, confounding the results of the assay. Reproducibility in collection and processing of tissue samples during necropsies may be difficult to control due to fluctuating laboratory personnel with varying levels of experience in harvesting tissues for the comet assay. Enhancing consistency through refresher training or deployment of mobile units staffed with experienced laboratory personnel is costly and may not always be feasible. To optimize consistent generation of high quality samples for comet assay analysis, a method for homogenizing flash frozen cubes of tissue using a customized tissue mincing device was evaluated. Samples prepared for the comet assay by this method compared favorably in quality to fresh and frozen tissue samples prepared by mincing during necropsy. Moreover, low baseline DNA damage was measured in cells from frozen cubes of tissue following prolonged storage.

This protocol describes several procedures for preparing high quality frozen tissue samples at the time of necropsy for use in the comet assay to assess DNA damage: 1) minced tissue, 2) scraped epithelial cells from the gastrointestinal tract, and 3) cubed tissue samples, requiring homogenization using a tissue mincing device.

The comet assay is gaining popularity as a means to assess DNA damage in cultured cells and tissues, particularly following exposure to chemicals or other ...

Characterization of In Vitro Differentiation of Human Primary Keratinocytes by RNA-Seq Analysis

Human primary keratinocytes are often used as in vitro models for studies on epidermal differentiation and related diseases. Methods have been reported for in vitro differentiation of keratinocytes cultured in two-dimensional (2D) submerged manners using various induction conditions. Described here is a procedure for 2D in vitro keratinocyte differentiation method by contact inhibition and subsequent molecular characterization by RNA-seq. In brief, keratinocytes are grown in defined keratinocyte medium supplemented with growth factors until they are fully confluent. Differentiation is induced by close contacts between the keratinocytes and further stimulated by excluding growth factors in the medium. Using RNA-seq analyses, it is shown that both 1) differentiated keratinocytes exhibit distinct molecular signatures during differentiation and 2) the dynamic gene expression pattern largely resembles cells during epidermal stratification. As for comparison to normal keratinocyte differentiation, keratinocytes carrying mutations of the transcription factor p63 exhibit altered morphology and molecular signatures, consistent with their differentiation defects. In conclusion, this protocol details the steps for 2D in vitro keratinocyte differentiation and its molecular characterization, with an emphasis on bioinformatic analysis of RNA-seq data. Because RNA extraction and RNA-seq procedures have been well-documented, it is not the focus of this protocol. The experimental procedure of in vitro keratinocyte differentiation and bioinformatic analysis pipeline can be used to study molecular events during epidermal differentiation in healthy and diseased keratinocytes.

Presented here is a stepwise procedure for in vitro differentiation of human primary keratinocytes by contact inhibition followed by characterization at the molecular level by RNA-seq analysis.

Human primary keratinocytes are often used as in vitro models for studies on epidermal differentiation and related diseases. Methods have been reported ...