This work was partially supported by Regione Toscana and European Community within the frame of the ERANET+ Projects LUS BUBBLE and BI-TRE.

Note: All concentrations of gold nanorods are expressed in terms of nominal Au molarities. For comparison with other works, note that 1 M Au roughly corresponds to 20 &#181;M gold nanorods, in our case.
1. Preparation of Cationic Gold Nanorods
Note: The method begins with the synthesis of cetrimonium bromide (CTAB)-capped gold nanorods by the autocatalytic reduction of HAuCl4 with ascorbic acid, according to the protocol introduced by Nikoobakht et al.25 and adapted according to Ratto et al.26. Then these gold nanorods are modified in order to gain more biocompatibility and affinity for plasmatic membranes, by the combination of polyethylene glycol strands10,11,27,28 and quaternary ammonium compounds22.
<ol>
	<li>Purify 24 ml CTAB-capped gold nanorods at a concentration of 450 &#181;M Au by two cycles of centrifugation (12,000 x g, 30 min) and decantation. Make sure that the ratio of dead volume to initial volume is around 1/200 or lower for all centrifugation steps in this protocol. Use 500 &#181;M aqueous CTAB as a washing solution and finally transfer the particles into 6 ml 100 mM acetate buffer at pH 5 containing 500 &#181;M CTAB and 0.005% (v/v) polysorbate 20.</li>
	<li>Add 30 &#181;l 10 mM aqueous alpha-methoxy-omega-mercapto-poly(ethylene glycol) (MW ~ 5,000) and leave to react for 30 min at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Add 30 &#181;l 100 mM (11-Mercaptoundecyl)-N,N,N-trimethylammonium bromide in dimethyl sulfoxide and leave at rest for 24 hr at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Next, add 18 ml 0.005% (v/v) polysorbate 20 in water and purify these particles by four cycles of centrifugation (12,000 x g, 30 min) and decantation. Use 0.005% (v/v) polysorbate 20 in water as washing solution and finally transfer the particles into 2.4 ml sterile PBS at pH 7.4. The final nominal concentration of gold is 4.5 mM.</li>
</ol>
2. Loading of Murine Macrophages with Gold Nanorods
<ol>
	<li>Use the monocyte/macrophagic cell line J774a.1 and DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 1 mM glutamine, 100 units/ml penicillin and 100 &#181;g/ml streptomycin as culture medium. Plate 5 x 105 cells in four Petri dishes of 60 mm diameter and allow them to grow for 24 hr, so as to be subconfluent at the time of detachment (see step 2.2).
	<ol>
		<li>Throughout the protocol, maintain the cells under standard culture conditions (37 &#176;C, 5% CO2, 95% air and 100% relative humidity). Use a laminar flow cabinet and appropriate personal protective equipment to manipulate the cells.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After 24 hr, load the cells with cationic gold nanorods and prepare them to be embedded into chitosan films:
	<ol>
		<li>In order to allow the particles to be taken up by the cells, add an aliquot of 4.5 mM Au cationic gold nanorods in PBS into each Petri dish, so as to achieve a final concentration of 100 &#181;M Au. Leave the Petri dishes in incubation for 24 hr.</li>
		<li>Next, observe the cells under an optical microscope to confirm their good conditions and the upload. Cells should exhibit their normal morphology and a number of dark intracellular vesicles. Detach the cells by a scraper, merge those from two Petri dishes, in order to achieve a suitable amount of cells for the following steps (at least 2 x 106 cells), and centrifuge them (120 x g, 6 min) to eliminate any excess of cationic gold nanorods. The cellular pellet should look almost black.</li>
		<li>Suspend the pellet in 2 ml PBS and count the cells by the use of a B&#252;rker chamber. Centrifuge a suspension containing 2 x 106 cells (120 x g, 6 min) and fix their pellet in 2 ml 3.6% (w/v) formaldehyde in PBS for ten minutes at room temperature. Finally, wash this pellet three times by centrifugation (120 x g, 6 min) in order to remove the fixative. Use PBS as washing solution.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Embedment of Macrophages into Chitosan Films
Note: The peculiar properties of chitosan26,27,28,29 are exploited to produce biomimetic phantoms containing macrophages stained with cationic gold nanorods. With respect to other hydrogels such as agarose, chitosan enables films that are much stronger and thinner, which is critical for PA microscopy6. The fabrication of these phantoms is carried out according to previous protocols29,30,31 with some modifications as prescribed in the followings30.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare an acidified (pH 4.5, obtained by the addition of acetic acid) and viscous 3% (w/v) low molecular weight chitosan (average MW 120 kDa) solution, thoroughly mix it and let it homogenize for 24 hr at 40 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Next, mix murine macrophages containing cationic gold nanorods (2 x 106 cells) with 500 &#181;l of chitosan solution.</li>
	<li>In order to obtain ~50 &#181;m thick phantoms, pour 250 mg of the mixture into 1.91 cm2 polystyrene molds and leave them under a nitrogen stream for 24 hr. Thereafter, treat these samples with 500 &#181;l 1 M NaOH, in order to induce cross-linking, and rinse them with 10 ml of ultrapure water.</li>
</ol>
4. Test of the Stability of Photoacoustic Conversion
Note: The stability of PA conversion is investigated by means of PA experiments with the home-made setup that is described in ref 6.
<ol>
	<li>Suspend a chitosan film containing the macrophages in DI water, for instance by the use of a plastic holder immersed in a Petri dish, so as to keep a distance of ~5 mm from the bottom of the plate. Put this plate onto a micrometric XY stage in order to control the sample position.</li>
	<li>Focus a laser beam with ~5 nsec pulse duration in resonance with the longitudinal plasmonic band of the gold nanorods (e.g., from an optical parametric oscillator pumped by the third harmonic of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with wavelength range of 400 - 2,500 nm and pulse duration of 5 nsec) perpendicular to the film surface with a ~300 &#181;m spot diameter.
	<ol>
		<li>Place an attenuator in front of the laser exit to tune the laser fluence and use a beam splitter to focus part of the laser beam to an energy meter (e.g., a pyroelectric detector) and monitor fluence fluctuations. Maintain the optical fluence below ~1 mJ/cm2 per pulse during the alignment. Use appropriate laser safety eyewear whenever the laser is on.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Dip an ultrasound transducer (frequency range of 1 - 20 MHz) into the Petri dish ~2 mm off of the film surface and adjust its position by using micrometric translations and rotational stages to maximize the PA signal emitted from the film.</li>
	<li>Determine a probe fluence FLO that does not damage the sample6:
	<ol>
		<li>Irradiate a random point of the sample at a fluence around 1 mJ/cm2 per pulse for at least 500 pulses. For each pulse, acquire the corresponding PA signal from the ultrasound transducer and laser fluence from the energy meter with an oscilloscope. Name the average fluence as FLOtrial.</li>
		<li>Calculate the intensity of the PA signal as its peak-to-peak amplitude as a function of pulse number. In order to counterweight the laser intensity fluctuations, normalize the amplitude of each PA signal to the ratio of its own fluence to FLOtrial. Analyze the trend of the normalized PA intensity as a function of pulse number and verify its stability over time.</li>
		<li>In the case of instability, repeat steps 4.4.1 to 4.4.3 with a lower value of FLOtrial. In the case of stability, repeat them with a value of FLOtrial higher by ~10%, until a loss of stability arises. Set the probe fluence FLO as the second highest value of FLOtrial that ensures stability.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Measure a reshaping threshold fluence:
	<ol>
		<li>Choose another random point of the sample and probe an average PA intensity (ILOa) over 500 pulses at FLO.</li>
		<li>Set a nominal fluence greater than FLO and deliver 50 pulses. Name their average fluence as Fexc.</li>
		<li>Probe an average PA intensity (ILOb) over 500 pulses at FLO once again. Calculate the ratio R = ILOb / ILOa. A value of R below unity gives evidence of an irreversible change of the optical properties of the sample.</li>
		<li>Use the micrometric XY stage to move the film and change the point of the sample at random. Repeat steps 4.5.1 to 4.5.4 with different values of Fexc, so as to take a few values of R below, around and above unity. 15 points are reasonable.</li>
		<li>Plot R as a function of Fexc and identify the reshaping threshold fluence Fth as that value when R begins to differ from one beyond statistical uncertainty.6</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The notion to target tumor-associated macrophages is emerging as a powerful concept to combat cancer34,35,36. Here, instead of their destruction, these cells are recruited as cellular vehicles to bring gold nanorods into a tumor, by the exploitation of their tropism. This perspective requires a thoughtful design of the particles, their integration into the cells and their characterization. We have found that the photostability of murine macrophages loaded with cation...

Over the past decade, various plasmonic particles such as gold nanorods, nanoshells and nanocages, have received considerable attention for applications in biomedical optics1,2,3,4. At variance with standard gold nanospheres, these newer particles resonate in the near infrared (NIR) window that provides for deepest optical penetration through the body and highest optical contrast over endogenous components1. This feature has aroused interest for innovative applications, such as the photoacoustic (PA) imaging and the photothermal ablation of cancer. However, several issues restrain the clinical penetration of these particles. For instance, their optical activation tends to induce their overheating and to modify their functional shapes towards more spherical profiles, which drives a photoinstability5,6,7,8,9. Another issue that dominates the scientific debate is their systemic delivery into tumors. In particular, gold nanorods combine sizes that are ideal to pervade tumors that display enhanced permeability and retention and ease of conjugation with specific probes of malignant markers. Therefore, their preparation for a direct injection into the bloodstream is perceived as a feasible scheme10,11,12,13. However, this route remains problematic, with most of the particles becoming captured by the mononuclear phagocyte system10,11,12. In addition, another concern is the optical and biochemical stability of the particles after circulation through the body14. When particles lose their colloidal stability and aggregate, their plasmonic features and heat transfer dynamics may suffer from plasmonic coupling15,16,17 and cross-overheating18.
More recently, the notion to exploit the tropism of tumor-associated macrophages has emerged as a smart alternative19,20,21. These cells hold an innate ability to detect and pervade tumors with high specificity. Therefore, one perspective may be to isolate these cells from a patient, load them with gold nanorods in vitro and then inject them back into the patient, with the intent to use them as cellular vehicles in charge of the delivery. Another advantage would be to gain more control over the optical and biochemical stability of the particles, because their biological interface would be constructed in vitro. Still, the performances of these cellular vehicles as optical contrast agents need a critical analysis.
In this work, we describe the preparation and critical issues of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods for the PA imaging of cancer. PEGylated gold nanorods are modified with quaternary ammonium compounds22, in order to achieve a cationic profile that is expected to promote their interactions with plasmatic membranes23,24. These particles undergo efficient and unspecific uptake from most cellular kinds, hopefully without interfering much with their biological functions. Murine macrophages are loaded with up to as many as 200&#775;,000 cationic gold nanorods per cell, which become confined within tight endocytic vesicles. This configuration should arise concern, because of the threat of plasmonic coupling and cross-overheating inside these vesicles. Therefore, the macrophages are embedded in biopolymeric hydrogels that mimic biological tissues, in order to verify that most of the stability of PA conversion of the particles is retained in the transfer from the growth medium to the endocytic vesicles. Effective measurement criteria are worked out in order to measure the stability of PA conversion under conditions of immediate interest for PA imaging. A reshaping threshold is set at the very onset of optical instability after a train of 50 laser pulses with the typical repetition rate of 10 Hz.
We are confident that these results may provide momentum for the development of novel strategies to deliver plasmonic particles to tumors.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="760">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H6269</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To synthesize gold nanorods</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Gold(III) chloride trihydrate</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">520918</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To synthesize gold nanorods</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Silver nitrate</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S6506</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To synthesize gold nanorods</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">L-ascorbic acid</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A5960</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To synthesize gold nanorods</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Sodium borohydride</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To synthesize gold nanoseeds</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">MeO-PEG-SH</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Iris Biotech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PEG1171</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To PEGylate gold nanorods. Molecular weight about 5,000 Da</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Acetic acid</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">320099</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To PEGylate gold nanorods and solubilize chitosan</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Sodium acetate</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S8750</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To PEGylate gold nanorods</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">(11-Mercaptoundecyl)-N,N,N-trimethylammonium bromide</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">733305</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To modify gold nanorods with quaternary ammonium compounds</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Dimethyl sulfoxide</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">276855</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To solubilize (11-mercaptoundecyl)-N,N,N-trimethylammonium bromide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">&#160;&#160;Polysorbate 20</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P2287</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To centrifuge PEGylated gold nanorods</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">PBS</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BE17-516F</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To suspend gold nanorods before incubation with cells and to treat pellets of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">J774a.1</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TIB-67</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Monocyte/macrophage murine cell line</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">DMEM</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BE12-707F</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Cell culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">FBS</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DE14-801F</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To be added to cell culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">L-glutamine</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BE17-605E</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To be added to cell culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Lonza</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DE17-602E</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To be added to cell culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Petri dish</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">NEST</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">705001</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Cell culture dish</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Cell scraper</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">EuroClone</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ES7018</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To detach cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Formaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Fluka</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">47630</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To fix cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Chitosan, low molecular weight&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">448869</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">75-85% deacetylated. Molecular weight about 120,000 Da</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Sodium hydroxyde</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">306576</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To insolubilize chitosan and generate the hydrogel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Polystyrene cell culture plates</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">NEST</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">702011</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Used as molds to fabricate chitosan hydrogels</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Optical parametric oscillator pumped by the third harmonic of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Continuum, Santa Clara, USA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">&#160;Surelite OPO plus</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Source of optical excitation for photoacoustic tests</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Pyroelectric detector&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Gentec, Quebec, Canada</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">QE8SP</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To monitor optical fluence for photoacoustic tests</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:216px;">Pre amplified needle hydrophone</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Precision Acoustic, Dorset, UK</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Model with 1 mm sensor diameter and 1-20 MHz frequency range</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">To measure photoacoustic signals</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation and photoacoustic analysis of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods

Gold nanorods are attractive for a range of biomedical applications, such as the photothermal ablation and the photoacoustic imaging of cancer, thanks to their intense optical absorbance in the near-infrared window, low cytotoxicity and potential to home into tumors. However, their delivery to tumors still remains an issue. An innovative approach consists of the exploitation of the tropism of tumor-associated macrophages that may be loaded with gold nanorods in vitro. Here, we describe the preparation and the photoacoustic inspection of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods. PEGylated gold nanorods are modified with quaternary ammonium compounds, in order to achieve a cationic profile. On contact with murine macrophages in ordinary Petri dishes, these particles are found to undergo massive uptake into endocytic vesicles. Then these cells are embedded in biopolymeric hydrogels, which are used to verify that the stability of photoacoustic conversion of the particles is retained in their inclusion into cellular vehicles. We are confident that these results may provide new inspiration for the development of novel strategies to deliver plasmonic particles to tumors.

Here, the feasibility of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods for the PA imaging of cancer is shown together with typical outcomes of the protocol.
The TEM images in Figure 1 show the usual appearance of the particles after step 1 and their cellular vehicles after step 2. The preparation of the particles and of the cells for TEM imaging is described elsewhere17. Cationic gold nanorods undergo a ...

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Preparation and Photoacoustic Analysis of Cellular Vehicles Containing Gold Nanorods

We show the preparation and address the feasibility of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods for the photoacoustic imaging of cancer.

Gold nanorods are attractive for a range of biomedical applications, such as the photothermal ablation and the photoacoustic imaging of cancer, thanks to ...

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Bioengineering

6.8K Views.  Italian National Research Council. We show the preparation and address the feasibility of cellular vehicles containing gold nanorods for the photoacoustic imaging of cancer.

Video: Preparation and Photoacoustic Analysis of Cellular Vehicles Containing Gold Nanorods

Preparation of Complaint Matrices for Quantifying Cellular Contraction

The regulation of cellular adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential for cell migration and ECM remodeling. Focal adhesions are macromolecular assemblies that couple the contractile F-actin cytoskeleton to the ECM. This connection allows for the transmission of intracellular mechanical forces across the cell membrane to the underlying substrate. Recent work has shown the mechanical properties of the ECM regulate focal adhesion and F-actin morphology as well as numerous physiological processes, including cell differentiation, division, proliferation and migration. Thus, the use of cell culture substrates has become an increasingly prevalent method to precisely control and modulate ECM mechanical properties.
To quantify traction forces at focal adhesions in an adherent cell, compliant substrates are used in conjunction with high-resolution imaging and computational techniques in a method termed traction force microscopy (TFM). This technique relies on measurements of the local magnitude and direction of substrate deformations induced by cellular contraction. In combination with high-resolution fluorescence microscopy of fluorescently tagged proteins, it is possible to correlate cytoskeletal organization and remodeling with traction forces.
Here we present a detailed experimental protocol for the preparation of two-dimensional, compliant matrices for the purpose of creating a cell culture substrate with a well-characterized, tunable mechanical stiffness, which is suitable for measuring cellular contraction. These protocols include the fabrication of polyacrylamide hydrogels, coating of ECM proteins on such gels, plating cells on gels, and high-resolution confocal microscopy using a perfusion chamber. Additionally, we provide a representative sample of data demonstrating location and magnitude of cellular forces using cited TFM protocols.

In this video, we demonstrate the experimental techniques used to fabricate compliant, extracellular matrix (ECM) coated substrates suitable for cell culture, and which are amenable to traction force microscopy and observing effects of ECM stiffness on cell behavior.

The regulation of cellular adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential for cell migration and ECM remodeling.  Focal adhesions are ...

Fabrication of Micro-tissues using Modules of Collagen Gel Containing Cells

This protocol describes the fabrication of a type of micro-tissues called modules.  The module approach generates uniform, scalable and vascularized tissues.  The modules can be made of collagen as well as other gelable or crosslinkable materials.  They are approximately 2 mm in length and 0.7 mm in diameter upon fabrication but shrink in size with embedded cells or when the modules are coated with endothelial cells.  The modules individually are small enough that the embedded cells are within the diffusion limit of oxygen and other nutrients but modules can be packed together to form larger tissues that are perfusable.  These tissues are modular in construction because different cell types can be embedded in or coated on the modules before they are packed together to form complex tissues.  There are three main steps to making the modules: (1) neutralizing the collagen and embedding cells in it, (2) gelling the collagen in the tube and cutting the modules and (3) coating the modules with endothelial cells.

Creation of micro-tissues using cylindrical collagen gels, called modules, that contain embedded cells and which surface is coated with endothelial cells.

This protocol describes the fabrication of a type of micro-tissues called modules.  The module approach generates uniform, scalable and vascularized ...

Three-dimensional Optical-resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As the mainstays of in vivo three-dimensional (3-D) optical microscopy, single-/multi-photon fluorescence microscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) have demonstrated their extraordinary sensitivities to fluorescence and optical scattering contrasts, respectively. However, the optical absorption contrast of biological tissues, which encodes essential physiological/pathological information, has not yet been assessable. 
The emergence of biomedical photoacoustics has led to a new branch of optical microscopy optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM)1, where the optical irradiation is focused to the diffraction limit to achieve cellular1 or even subcellular2 level lateral resolution. As a valuable complement to existing optical microscopy technologies, OR-PAM brings in at least two novelties. First and most importantly, OR-PAM detects optical absorption contrasts with extraordinary sensitivity (i.e., 100%). Combining OR-PAM with fluorescence microscopy3 or with optical-scattering-based OCT4 (or with both) provides comprehensive optical properties of biological tissues. Second, OR-PAM encodes optical absorption into acoustic waves, in contrast to the pure optical processes in fluorescence microscopy and OCT, and provides background-free detection. The acoustic detection in OR-PAM mitigates the impacts of optical scattering on signal degradation and naturally eliminates possible interferences (i.e., crosstalks) between excitation and detection, which is a common problem in fluorescence microscopy due to the overlap between the excitation and fluorescence spectra. 
Unique for optical absorption imaging, OR-PAM has demonstrated broad biomedical applications since its invention, including, but not limited to, neurology5, 6, ophthalmology7, 8, vascular biology9, and dermatology10. In this video, we teach the system configuration and alignment of OR-PAM as well as the experimental procedures for in vivo functional microvascular imaging.

Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) is an emerging technology capable of imaging optical absorption contrasts in vivo with cellular resolution and sensitivity. Here, we provide a visualized instruction on the experimental protocols of OR-PAM, including system configuration, system alignment, typical in vivo experimental procedures, and functional imaging schemes.

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As ...

Specimen Preparation, Imaging, and Analysis Protocols for Knife-edge Scanning Microscopy

Major advances in high-throughput, high-resolution, 3D microscopy techniques have enabled the acquisition of large volumes of neuroanatomical data at submicrometer resolution. One of the first such instruments producing whole-brain-scale data is the Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope (KESM)7, 5, 9, developed and hosted in the authors' lab. KESM has been used to section and image whole mouse brains at submicrometer resolution, revealing the intricate details of the neuronal networks (Golgi)1, 4, 8, vascular networks (India ink)1, 4, and cell body distribution (Nissl)3. The use of KESM is not restricted to the mouse nor the brain. We have successfully imaged the octopus brain6, mouse lung, and rat brain. We are currently working on whole zebra fish embryos. Data like these can greatly contribute to connectomics research10; to microcirculation and hemodynamic research; and to stereology research by providing an exact ground-truth. 
In this article, we will describe the pipeline, including specimen preparation (fixing, staining, and embedding), KESM configuration and setup, sectioning and imaging with the KESM, image processing, data preparation, and data visualization and analysis. The emphasis will be on specimen preparation and visualization/analysis of obtained KESM data. We expect the detailed protocol presented in this article to help broaden the access to KESM and increase its utilization.

The full process from brain specimen preparation to serial sectioning imaging using the Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope, to data visualization and analysis is described. This technique is currently used to acquire mouse brain data, but it is applicable to other organs, other species.

Major advances in high-throughput, high-resolution, 3D microscopy techniques have enabled the acquisition of large volumes of neuroanatomical data at ...

Detection and Isolation of Circulating Melanoma Cells using Photoacoustic Flowmetry

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are those cells that have separated from a macroscopic tumor and spread through the blood and lymph systems to seed secondary tumors1,2,3. CTCs are indicators of metastatic disease and their detection in blood samples may be used to diagnose cancer and monitor a patient&prime;s response to therapy. Since CTCs are rare, comprising about one tumor cell among billions of normal blood cells in advanced cancer patients, their detection and enumeration is a difficult task. We exploit the presence of pigment in most melanoma cells to generate photoacoustic, or laser induced ultrasonic waves in a custom flow cytometer for detection of circulating melanoma cells (CMCs)4,5. This process entails separating a whole blood sample using centrifugation and obtaining the white blood cell layer. If present in whole blood, CMCs will separate with the white blood cells due to similar density. These cells are resuspended in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and introduced into the flowmeter. Rather than a continuous flow of the blood cell suspension, we induced two phase flow in order to capture these cells for further study. In two phase flow, two immiscible liquids in a microfluidic system meet at a junction and form alternating slugs of liquid6,7. PBS suspended white blood cells and air form microliter slugs that are sequentially irradiated with laser light. The addition of a surfactant to the liquid phase allows uniform slug formation and the user can create different sized slugs by altering the flow rates of the two phases. Slugs of air and slugs of PBS with white blood cells contain no light absorbers and hence, do not produce photoacoustic waves. However, slugs of white blood cells that contain even single CMCs absorb laser light and produce high frequency acoustic waves. These slugs that generate photoacoustic waves are sequestered and collected for cytochemical staining for verification of CMCs.

We have developed a flow cytometer using laser induced ultrasound to detect circulating melanoma cells as an early indicator of metastatic disease.

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are those cells that have separated from a macroscopic tumor and spread through the blood and lymph systems to seed ...

Integrated Photoacoustic Ophthalmoscopy and Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography

Both the clinical diagnosis and fundamental investigation of major ocular diseases greatly benefit from various non-invasive ophthalmic imaging technologies. Existing retinal imaging modalities, such as fundus photography1, confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (cSLO)2, and optical coherence tomography (OCT)3, have significant contributions in monitoring disease onsets and progressions, and developing new therapeutic strategies. However, they predominantly rely on the back-reflected photons from the retina. As a consequence, the optical absorption properties of the retina, which are usually strongly associated with retinal pathophysiology status, are inaccessible by the traditional imaging technologies.
Photoacoustic ophthalmoscopy (PAOM) is an emerging retinal imaging modality that permits the detection of the optical absorption contrasts in the eye with a high sensitivity4-7 . In PAOM nanosecond laser pulses are delivered through the pupil and scanned across the posterior eye to induce photoacoustic (PA) signals, which are detected by an unfocused ultrasonic transducer attached to the eyelid. Because of the strong optical absorption of hemoglobin and melanin, PAOM is capable of non-invasively imaging the retinal and choroidal vasculatures, and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) melanin at high contrasts 6,7. More importantly, based on the well-developed spectroscopic photoacoustic imaging5,8 , PAOM has the potential to map the hemoglobin oxygen saturation in retinal vessels, which can be critical in studying the physiology and pathology of several blinding diseases 9 such as diabetic retinopathy and neovascular age-related macular degeneration.
Moreover, being the only existing optical-absorption-based ophthalmic imaging modality, PAOM can be integrated with well-established clinical ophthalmic imaging techniques to achieve more comprehensive anatomic and functional evaluations of the eye based on multiple optical contrasts6,10 . In this work, we integrate PAOM and spectral-domain OCT (SD-OCT) for simultaneously in vivo retinal imaging of rat, where both optical absorption and scattering properties of the retina are revealed. The system configuration, system alignment and imaging acquisition are presented.

Photoacoustic ophthalmology (PAOM), an optical-absorption-based imaging modality, provides the complementary evaluation of the retina to the currently available ophthalmic imaging technologies. We report the using of PAOM integrated with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) for simultaneous multimodal retinal imaging in rats.

Both the clinical diagnosis and fundamental investigation of major ocular diseases greatly benefit from various non-invasive ophthalmic imaging ...

Photoacoustic Cystography

Conventional pediatric cystography, which is based on diagnostic X-ray using a radio-opaque dye, suffers from the use of harmful ionizing radiation. The risk of bladder cancers in children due to radiation exposure is more significant than many other cancers. Here we demonstrate the feasibility of nonionizing and noninvasive photoacoustic (PA) imaging of urinary bladders, referred to as photoacoustic cystography (PAC), using near-infrared (NIR) optical absorbents (i.e. methylene blue, plasmonic gold nanostructures, or single walled carbon nanotubes) as an optical-turbid tracer. We have successfully imaged a rat bladder filled with the optical absorbing agents using a dark-field confocal PAC system. After transurethral injection of the contrast agents, the rat's bladders were photoacoustically visualized by achieving significant PA signal enhancement. The accumulation was validated by spectroscopic PA imaging. Further, by using only a laser pulse energy of less than 1 mJ/cm2 (1/20 of the safety limit), our current imaging system could map the methylene-blue-filled-rat-bladder at the depth of beyond 1 cm in biological tissues in vivo. Both in vivo and ex vivo PA imaging results validate that the contrast agents were naturally excreted via urination. Thus, there is no concern regarding long-term toxic agent accumulation, which will facilitate clinical translation.

Photoacoustic cystography (PAC) has a great potential to map urinary bladders, a radiation sensitive internal organ in pediatric patients, without using any ionizing radiation or toxic contrast agent. Here we demonstrate the use of PAC for mapping urinary bladders with an injection of optical-opaque tracers in rats in vivo.

Conventional pediatric cystography, which is based on diagnostic X-ray using a radio-opaque dye, suffers from the use of harmful ionizing radiation. The ...

Preparation and Analysis of In Vitro Three Dimensional Breast Carcinoma Surrogates

Three dimensional (3D) culture is a more physiologically relevant method to model cell behavior in vitro than two dimensional culture. Carcinomas, including breast carcinomas, are complex 3D tissues composed of cancer epithelial cells and stromal components, including fibroblasts and extracellular matrix (ECM). Yet most in vitro models of breast carcinoma consist only of cancer epithelial cells, omitting the stroma and, therefore, the 3D architecture of a tumor in vivo. Appropriate 3D modeling of carcinoma is important for accurate understanding of tumor biology, behavior, and response to therapy. However, the duration of culture and volume of 3D models is limited by the availability of oxygen and nutrients within the culture. Herein, we demonstrate a method in which breast carcinoma epithelial cells and stromal fibroblasts are incorporated into ECM to generate a 3D breast cancer surrogate that includes stroma and can be cultured as a solid 3D structure or by using a perfusion bioreactor system to deliver oxygen and nutrients. Following setup and an initial growth period, surrogates can be used for preclinical drug testing. Alternatively, the cellular and matrix components of the surrogate can be modified to address a variety of biological questions. After culture, surrogates are fixed and processed to paraffin, in a manner similar to the handling of clinical breast carcinoma specimens, for evaluation of parameters of interest. The evaluation of one such parameter, the density of cells present, is explained, where ImageJ and CellProfiler image analysis software systems are applied to photomicrographs of histologic sections of surrogates to quantify the number of nucleated cells per area. This can be used as an indicator of the change in cell number over time or the change in cell number resulting from varying growth conditions and treatments.

Preparation and Analysis of In Vitro Three Dimensional Breast Carcinoma Surrogates

We demonstrate a method to generate 3D breast cancer surrogates, which can be cultured using a perfusion bioreactor system to deliver oxygen and nutrients. Following growth, surrogates are fixed and processed to paraffin for evaluation of parameters of interest. The evaluation of one such parameter, cell density, is explained.

Three dimensional (3D) culture is a more physiologically relevant method to model cell behavior in vitro than two dimensional culture. Carcinomas, ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Optical Tissue Phantoms Containing Macrostructure

The rapid development of new optical imaging techniques is dependent on the availability of low-cost, customizable, and easily reproducible standards. By replicating the imaging environment, costly animal experiments to validate a technique may be circumvented. Predicting and optimizing the performance of in vivo and ex vivo imaging techniques requires testing on samples that are optically similar to tissues of interest. Tissue-mimicking optical phantoms provide a standard for evaluation, characterization, or calibration of an optical system. Homogenous polymer optical tissue phantoms are widely used to mimic the optical properties of a specific tissue type within a narrow spectral range. Layered tissues, such as the epidermis and dermis, can be mimicked by simply stacking these homogenous slab phantoms. However, many in vivo imaging techniques are applied to more spatially complex tissue where three dimensional structures, such as blood vessels, airways, or tissue defects, can affect the performance of the imaging system. 
This protocol describes the fabrication of a tissue-mimicking phantom that incorporates three-dimensional structural complexity using material with optical properties of tissue. Look-up tables provide India ink and titanium dioxide recipes for optical absorption and scattering targets. Methods to characterize and tune the material optical properties are described. The phantom fabrication detailed in this article has an internal branching mock airway void; however, the technique can be broadly applied to other tissue or organ structures.

Optical tissue phantoms are essential tools for calibration and characterization of optical imaging systems and validation of theoretical models. This article details a method for phantom fabrication that includes replication of tissue optical properties and three-dimensional tissue structure.

The rapid development of new optical imaging techniques is dependent on the availability of low-cost, customizable, and easily reproducible standards. By ...

Preparation, Purification, and Use of Fatty Acid-containing Liposomes

Liposomes containing single-chain amphiphiles, particularly fatty acids, exhibit distinct properties compared to those containing diacylphospholipids due to the unique chemical properties of these amphiphiles. In particular, fatty acid liposomes enhance dynamic character, due to the relatively high solubility of single-chain amphiphiles. Similarly, liposomes containing free fatty acids are more sensitive to salt and divalent cations, due to the strong interactions between the carboxylic acid head groups and metal ions. Here we illustrate techniques for preparation, purification, and use of liposomes comprised in part or whole of single chain amphiphiles (e.g., oleic acids).

Liposomes containing single-chain amphiphiles, particularly fatty acids, exhibit distinct properties compared to those containing diacylphospholipids due to the unique chemical properties of single chain amphiphiles. Here we describe techniques for the preparation, purification, and use of liposomes comprised in part or whole of these amphiphiles.

Liposomes containing single-chain amphiphiles, particularly fatty acids, exhibit distinct properties compared to those containing diacylphospholipids due ...

Preparation and Photoacoustic Analysis of Cellular Vehicles Containing Gold Nanorods

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