This work was partly supported by NSF CBET 1227766, NSF CBET 1511759, and Byars-Tarnay Endowment. We gratefully acknowledge use of the West Virginia University Shared Research Facilities which are supported, in part, by NSF EPS-1003907.

1. Replication of PDMS Molds from an EBL Mold
<ol>
	<li>Fabricate silicon mold29
	<ol>
		<li>Spin coat 200 &#956;l polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) solution on a 1&#160;&#215; 1 cm silicon (Si) substrate at 2,500 rpm for 1 min to form a thin film.</li>
		<li>Bake the PMMA film on the Si substrate at 180 &#176;C for 2 min.</li>
		<li>Write the designed nanopattern on the PMMA film by using a focused electron beam at an area dose of 300 &#181;C/cm2.</li>
		<li>Develop the PMMA nanopattern in developer for 80 sec.</li>
		<li>Deposit the PMMA nanopattern with a nickel layer of 50 nm in thickness using an E-beam evaporator at an output voltage of 10 kV, emission current of 0.5 mA and a deposition rate of 0.5 &#197;/sec.</li>
		<li>Lift off the PMMA part in 20 ml remover at 80 &#176;C for 20 min.</li>
		<li>Reactive ion etch (RIE) the nanopattern into the Si substrate to get a Si mold of the desired depth. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Gas mixture of tetrafluoromethane (CF4)/oxygen (O2) (90%/10%) at an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) power of 400 W and RIE power of 150 W is used to etch Si substrate to a depth of 560 nm.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Silanize Si mold
	<ol>
		<li>Put a glass coverslip and the Si mold in a 100 mm PS Petri dish and transfer them in a glass desiccator located in a fume hood.</li>
		<li>Drop 10 &#181;l 1H,1H,2H,2H-Perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane on the coverslip. 
		&#8203;Caution: 1H,1H,2H,2H-Perfluorooctyltrichlorosilane may cause skin corrosion and serious eye damage. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).</li>
		<li>Cover the Petri dish partially.</li>
		<li>Keep the desiccator under vacuum for 5 hr in a fume hood to complete the silanization of the Si mold.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare PDMS prepolymer
	<ol>
		<li>Weigh 10 g PDMS resin and 1.05 g curing agent in a disposable weighing boat.</li>
		<li>Mix the PDMS prepolymer thoroughly by using a plastic spoon.</li>
		<li>Degas the PDMS prepolymer in a plastic desiccator under vacuum for about 20 min till a clear mixture is observed.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Replicate PDMS molds
	<ol>
		<li>Put the silanized Si mold in a 60 mm Petri dish.</li>
		<li>Pour the PDMS prepolymer on the Si mold in the Petri dish.</li>
		<li>Place the Petri dish in a plastic desiccator and degas for about 10 min till all bubbles disappear.</li>
		<li>Transfer the Petri dish to a hotplate and cure the PDMS prepolymer at 70 &#176;C for 4 hr.</li>
		<li>Peel off the PDMS mold from the Si mold carefully by using tweezers. 
		&#8203;NOTE: PDMS molds can be stored at ambient conditions for up to one week. After curing, there are some uncrosslinked PDMS resin molecules and residual curing agent in the PDMS molds30. The low molecular weight molecules will gradually diffuse out and accumulate at the surface over time. This affects the topographical and mechanical properties of the PDMS surface31. The diffusion is not significant within one week.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Stitching of PDMS Molds into a Large, Single Mold
<ol>
	<li>Prepare multiple PDMS molds by repeating Step 1.4. 
	NOTE: Weigh same amount of PDMS mixture each time to obtain PDMS molds of same thickness.</li>
	<li>Determine the orientation of anisotropic PDMS nanopatterns such as nanogratings under an optical microscope and mark it on the backside of the PDMS molds with a marker pen. 
	NOTE: It is not necessary to mark the orientation of isotropic nanotopography such as nanopillars.</li>
	<li>Clean a Si substrate with ethanol in a fume hood and dry it with compressed air.</li>
	<li>Trim off the unpatterned areas of each PDMS mold with a blade. 
	&#8203;NOTE: For the PDMS molds that will be placed at the periphery of the stitched mold, only the unpatterned areas in contact with others should be trimmed off.</li>
	<li>Place the trimmed PDMS mold with the nanopattern face-down on the mirror side of the Si substrate and then align other molds close to but not touching the surrounding mold(s).</li>
	<li>Prepare a PDMS adhesive layer
	<ol>
		<li>Cast 1 g degassed PDMS prepolymer (PDMS resin and curing agent ratio: 10:1.05) on a clean glass slide (7.5 cm&#160;&#215; 2.5 cm) to form a 0.5 mm thick layer.</li>
		<li>Bake the PDMS layer at 100 &#176;C on a hotplate for 3-5 min. Use a needle to touch the layer and ensure that the layer is partially but not completely cured. 
		NOTE: Partially cured PDMS cannot flow like uncured PDMS prepolymer, but it is sticky compared with cured PDMS.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place the PDMS layer on the backside of aligned PDMS molds and quickly invert this assembly and transfer it to the hotplate.</li>
	<li>Apply a compressive force (5 kPa) using a metal block on the top of assembly to ensure a good contact between the PDMS adhesive layer and the backside of PDMS molds, and cure the PDMS adhesive layer at 100 &#176;C for 1 hr. 
	NOTE: Carefully adjust the position of the metal block to avoid the tilt of the assembly.</li>
	<li>Remove the metal block and peel off the single, stitched PDMS mold from the Si substrate.</li>
</ol>
3. Generation of a Master Mold on PS Substrates
Note: The stitched PDMS mold immobilized on a glass slide can be used to generate a master mold on a PS plate or a PS thin film, from which working nanopatterned substrates can be produced.
<ol>
	<li>Generate a master mold on a PS plate
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a PS plate
		<ol>
			<li>Dry the PS pellets in a vacuum oven at 80 &#176;C for two days.</li>
			<li>Preheat a press machine at 230 &#176;C.</li>
			<li>Assemble an aluminum plate, a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) sheet and the aluminum spacer in an order from bottom to top.</li>
			<li>Load 3.5 g PS pellets in the aluminum spacer with a square opening of 3 cm (L) &#215; 3 cm (W) &#215; 0.3 cm (H). 
			&#8203;NOTE: The spacer is approximately 0.1 cm thicker than the PDMS molds, and thus the final nanopatterned PS substrate is about 0.1 cm thick.</li>
			<li>Place another PTFE sheet and then another aluminum plate on the aluminum spacer.</li>
			<li>Place the assembly in the press machine.</li>
			<li>Preheat the PS pellets at 230 &#176;C for 30 min.</li>
			<li>Apply a compressive pressure (0.1 MPa) on the assembly for 5 min.</li>
			<li>Release the pressure and then reapply a compressive pressure of 0.5 MPa on the assembly.</li>
			<li>Repeat Step 3.1.1.9 with a pressure increase of 0.5 MPa till the desirable pressure of 1.5 MPa is reached.</li>
			<li>Turn off the heater of the press machine and cool it down below 70 &#176;C at a constant pressure of 1.5 MPa.</li>
			<li>Take the assembly out and store the PS plate in a vacuum oven at 80 &#176;C to prevent moisture from re-entering the PS plate.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Nanoimprint the stitched PDMS mold into PS plate
		<ol>
			<li>Place the PS plate in an aluminum spacer set on a 3-inch Si wafer. 
			&#8203;NOTE: The inner dimensions of the spacer are the same as those of the PS plate so the PS plate fits right in the spacer.</li>
			<li>Heat the PS plate on a hotplate at 250 &#176;C for 30 min.</li>
			<li>Put the stitched PDMS mold with nanopatterns face-down on the molten PS plate. 
			NOTE: One side of the PDMS mold is put in touch with the surface of the PS plate first and another side is lowered gradually in contact with the PS surface to avoid the formation of air bubbles at the interface. 
			&#8203;Caution: The surface of the hotplate is hot. Wear thermogloves during nanoimprinting process.</li>
			<li>Place an aluminum plate on the glass slide of the stitched PDMS mold.</li>
			<li>Apply a compressive pressure (12.5 kPa) by using metal blocks on the aluminum plate and wait for 3 min. 
			&#8203;NOTE: Make sure that the aluminum plate is not tilted.</li>
			<li>Lift and replace the metal block from the aluminum plate and increase the compressive pressure to 25 kPa.</li>
			<li>Repeat Step 3.1.2.6 with the pressure increased to 50 kPa. 
			&#8203;NOTE: This step is to remove the air trapped between the PDMS mold and PS plate.</li>
			<li>Maintain the temperature of the hotplate between 240 and 250 &#176;C under the consistent pressure of 50 kPa for 15 min.</li>
			<li>Turn off the hotplate and cool down the whole setup. 
			&#8203;NOTE: A fan can be used to expedite the cooling process.</li>
			<li>Remove the metal blocks after the temperature is below 50 &#176;C, and carefully peel off the stitched PDMS mold from the PS plate. 
			&#8203;NOTE: The PS substrate has the reverse nanopatterns and can be used as a master mold to produce working PDMS substrates.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Generate a master mold on a PS thin film
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a PS thin film
		<ol>
			<li>Dissolve 1 g PS in 10 ml toluene in a fume hood. 
			&#8203;Caution: Toluene can cause skin irritation and serious eye damage, and may cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure. Wear appropriate PPE.</li>
			<li>Spin-coat 1 ml PS solution on a 2-in wafer at 2,500 rpm for 1 min to form ~1 &#956;m thick PS thin film.</li>
			<li>Evaporate toluene from the film by setting the PS film on Si wafer in a fume hood for 3 days.</li>
			<li>Anneal the PS thin film in a vacuum oven at 80 &#176;C overnight.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Nanoimprint the PDMS mold on a PS thin film
		<ol>
			<li>Put the stitched PDMS mold with nanotopography face-down on the PS thin film, which is set on a hotplate.</li>
			<li>Apply a compressive pressure of 12 kPa on the PDMS mold by using metal blocks on the glass side of the PDMS mold.</li>
			<li>Increase the temperature of the hotplate to 180 &#176;C and maintain it for 15 min. 
			&#8203;Caution: The molten PS film can function as a lubricant. Pay attention to prevent the metal blocks from sliding off.</li>
			<li>Turn off the hotplate and cool down the whole setup. 
			&#8203;NOTE: A fan can be used to expedite the cooling process.</li>
			<li>Remove the metal blocks after the temperature drops below 50 &#176;C, and carefully peel off the stitched PDMS mold from the PS film. 
			&#8203;NOTE: The nanopatterned PS film will serve as a master mold to produce working PDMS substrates.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Nanotopographical Modulation of Cell Behavior
Note: Human epithelial cells are cultured on the representative nanotopographies to demonstrate nanotopographical modulation of cell spreading.
<ol>
	<li>Cast PDMS working substrates from the master mold generated from either Step 3.1 or 3.2 depending on the application.</li>
	<li>Using a hollow steel arch punch, cut the nanopatterned PDMS substrates into discs to fit the configuration of a specific multi-well plate (e.g., 24-well plate).</li>
	<li>Use tweezers to place the PDMS discs into the wells of a multi-well plate.</li>
	<li>Sterilize the PDMS substrates by using 70% ethanol and then UV exposure, each for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Wash the PDMS substrates with 1x sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS) three times.</li>
	<li>Coat the PDMS substrates with extracellular matrix protein (i.e., 20 &#181;g/ml fibronectin) for 30 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Rinse the PDMS substrates three times with sterile PBS, each for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Suspend human lung cancer cell A549 in Dulbecco&#39;s modified eagle medium with 10% fetal bovine serum and count the cells using a hemocytometer.</li>
	<li>Plate the cells at a seeding density of 2,000 cells/cm2 on the PDMS substrates and culture them at 37 &#176;C in a humidified atmosphere containing 5% CO2 for one day.</li>
	<li>Wash the cells with PBS three times.</li>
	<li>Fix the cells in a mixture of 4% paraformaldehyde and 2% glutaraldehyde in PBS for 4 hr and dehydrate cells using a CO2 critical point dryer for scanning electronic microscopic observation29. 
	Caution: Paraformaldehyde and glutaraldehyde may cause severe skin burns and eye damage. Operate in a chemical hood and wear appropriate PPE.</li>
</ol>

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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Solvent+Compatibility+of+Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-Based+Microfluidic+Devices.">Solvent Compatibility of Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-Based Microfluidic Devices.</a> Anal. Chem. 75 (23), 6544-6554 (2003).</li><li>Yang, Y., Kulangara, K., Lam, R. T. S., Dharmawan, R., Leong, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+Topographical+and+Mechanical+Property+Alterations+Induced+by+Oxygen+Plasma+Modification+on+Stem+Cell+Behavior.">Effects of Topographical and Mechanical Property Alterations Induced by Oxygen Plasma Modification on Stem Cell Behavior.</a> ACS Nano. 6 (10), 8591-8598 (2012).</li><li>Hua, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymer+Imprint+Lithography+with+Molecular-Scale+Resolution.">Polymer Imprint Lithography with Molecular-Scale Resolution.</a> Nano Lett. 4 (12), 2467-2471 (2004).</li><li>Delamarche, E., Schmid, H., Michel, B., Biebuyck, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stability+of+molded+polydimethylsiloxane+microstructures.">Stability of molded polydimethylsiloxane microstructures.</a> Adv. Mater. 9 (9), 741-746 (1997).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

We present a simple, affordable, yet versatile method to generate a large area of nanopatterned substrate. To faithfully expand highly defined nanopatterns, great attention should be paid to several critical steps. The first one is to trim the multiple PDMS molds. Unpatterned areas of the PDMS molds need to be removed. Additionally, the sidewalls of the molds should be cut vertically as perfect as possible to minimize the gaps between the molds. Collectively, the portion of unpatterned areas in the final stitch mold can ...

A number of recent findings reveal that substrate nanotopography has pronounced influence on cell behavior, from cell adhesion, spreading and migration, to proliferation and differentiation1-6. For instance, a smaller cell size and lower proliferation rate have been observed in cells cultured on deep nanogratings, even leading to apoptosis although the cell alignment, elongation and migration were enhanced, compared with the flat controls2,7-10. Moreover, nanotopography has been shown to facilitate the differentiation of stem cells into certain lineages such as neuron2,11,12, muscle13, and bone3,4. In addition, because of increasing concerns on the toxicity of engineered nanomaterials14,15, there is a need to incorporate nanotopography into physiologically relevant in vitro models for accurate risk assessment of nanomaterials. To fulfil the biochemical and molecular biology analyses, enough cells are needed to be grown on a large area of nanopatterned substrate. However, conventional nanofabrication techniques have limitations to generate highly defined nanopatterns over a large area.
Self-assembly including colloid lithography16 and polymer demixing17 can readily generate large-area nanostructures at low costs. Because self-assembly relies on interactions between the assembling elements such as colloidal particles and macromolecules, and possible interactions between these elements and substrate, it cannot be a stand-alone method of producing nanostructures with precise spatial positioning and arbitrary shapes18. The accompanied high density of defects is also a drawback. Precise spatial control of nanopatterns can be achieved by employing templated self-assembly, which uses top-down lithographic approaches to provide the topographical and/or chemical template to guide the bottom-up assembly of the assembling elements19-21. Alternative nanofabrication techniques such as step-and-flash lithography22 and a roll-to-roll nanoimprinting lithography23 have been developed but have limited use because of their sophisticated process or the requirement of specialized equipment. Nevertheless, a template or a master mold with defined nanoscale patterns is needed for templated or alternative nanofabrication techniques. 
Such templates and master molds are conventionally generated by using focused electron, ion, or photon beam lithography. For instance, electron beam lithography (EBL)24 and focused ion beam lithography25 can generate defined patterns with a sub-5 nm resolution. Two-photon lithography has demonstrated a feature size as small as 30 nm26. Although the focused beam lithography techniques enable generation of well-defined nanoscale structures, the capital investment and the time-consuming, costly process restrict their widespread use in academic research27. Therefore, it is highly desirable to develop enabling yet affordable techniques to produce a large area of nanopatterned surfaces with high fidelity.
We have reported a simple, cost-effective stitch technique for generating a large area of nanopatterned surface from a small well-defined mold28. This protocol provides step-by-step procedure from replication of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) molds using an EBL-written pattern, to assembly of multiple PDMS molds into a single large mold, to generation of a master mold on polymeric such as polystyrene (PS) substrates, to production of working substrates. With the expanded nanopatterned substrates, we demonstrated nanotopographical modulation of cell spreading.

<table><tbody><tr><td>JEOL field emission SEM</td><td>JEOL</td><td>JSM-7600F</td><td>EBL</td></tr><tr><td>E-beam evaporator</td><td>Kurt J. Lesker</td><td>Model: LAB 18 e-beam evaporator</td><td>nickel deposition</td></tr><tr><td>Trion Minilock III ICP/RIE</td><td>Trion technology</td><td>Model: Minilock-phantom III</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Press machine</td><td>PHI Hydraulic Press</td><td>Molde: SQ-230H</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Spin coater</td><td>Laurell Technologies</td><td>Modle: WS-400A-6NPP-LITE</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; critical dryer</td><td>Tousimis</td><td>Modle: Autosamdri-815</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silicon wafer</td><td>University Wafer</td><td>1080</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aluminum plates</td><td>McMaster-carr</td><td>9057K123</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Teflon sheets</td><td>McMaster-carr</td><td>8711K92</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>100 mm Petri dish</td><td>FALCON</td><td>353003</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>60 mm Petri dish</td><td>FALCON</td><td>353004</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass coverslip</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-542-B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass slide</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-550-34</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Disposable weighing boats</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>13-735-743</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass desiccator</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>02-913-360</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plastic desiccator</td><td>Bel-Art Products</td><td>F42025-000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hotplate</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>1110049SH</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tweezer</td><td>Ted Pella, inc.</td><td>5726</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blade</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>S17302</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Metal blocks</td><td>McMaster-carr</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Punch</td><td>Brettuns Village Leather Craft Supplies</td><td>Arch punch</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Poly(methyl methacrylate)</td><td>MicroChem</td><td>495 PMMA A4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PDMS</td><td>Dow Corning</td><td>Sylgard 184 kit</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Polystyrene</td><td>Dow Chemical</td><td>Styron 685D</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctylmethyldichlorosilane</td><td>Oakwood Chemical</td><td>7142</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Developer</td><td>MicroChem</td><td>MIBK/IPA at 1: 3 ratio</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Remover</td><td>MicroChem</td><td>Remover PG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>BP2818500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Toluene</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>T324-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate buffered saline</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>D8537</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&amp;rsquo;s modified eagle medium</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>D5796</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal bovine serum</td><td>Atlanta Biologicals</td><td>S11550</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde</td><td>Electron Microsopy Science</td><td>15712-S</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glutaraldehyde&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fisher Chemical</td><td>G151-1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fibronectin</td><td>Corning</td><td>356008</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>A549 cells</td><td>ATCC</td><td>ATCC CCL-185</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

expanding nanopatterned substrates using stitch technique for nanotopographical modulation of cell behavior

Substrate nanotopography has been shown to be a potent modulator of cell phenotype and function. To dissect nanotopography modulation of cell behavior, a large area of nanopatterned substrate is desirable so that enough cells can be cultured on the nanotopography for subsequent biochemical and molecular biology analyses. However, current nanofabrication techniques have limitations to generate highly defined nanopatterns over a large area. Herein, we present a method to expand nanopatterned substrates from a small, highly defined nanopattern to a large area using stitch technique. The method combines multiple techniques, involving soft lithography to replicate poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) molds from a well-defined mold, stitch technique to assemble multiple PDMS molds to a single large mold, and nanoimprinting to generate a master mold on polystyrene (PS) substrates. With the PS master mold, we produce PDMS working substrates and demonstrate nanotopographical modulation of cell spreading. This method provides a simple, affordable yet versatile avenue to generate well-defined nanopatterns over large areas, and is potentially extended to create micro-/nanoscale devices with hybrid components.

The stitch technique can generate a large area of nanopatterned substrates with high fidelity. Figure 1a and 1b display the large area of nanopatterns transferred from the stitched PDMS mold to PS plate and PS thin film on a Si substrate, respectively. The comparison between the original EBL-written mold (Figure 1c) and the final PDMS working substrate (Figure 1d) confirms that the EBL-written nanopatterns can be faithful...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Expanding Nanopatterned Substrates Using Stitch Technique for Nanotopographical Modulation of Cell Behavior at JoVE.com

Expanding Nanopatterned Substrates Using Stitch Technique for Nanotopographical Modulation of Cell Behavior

A protocol for producing a large area of nanopatterned substrate from small nanopatterned molds for study of nanotopographical modulation of cell behavior is presented.

Substrate nanotopography has been shown to be a potent modulator of cell phenotype and function. To dissect nanotopography modulation of cell behavior, a ...

expanding-nanopatterned-substrates-using-stitch-technique-for

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

6.5K Views.  West Virginia University. A protocol for producing a large area of nanopatterned substrate from small nanopatterned molds for study of nanotopographical modulation of cell behavior is presented.

Video: Expanding Nanopatterned Substrates Using Stitch Technique for Nanotopographical Modulation of Cell Behavior

Stencil Micropatterning of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells for Probing Spatial Organization of Differentiation Fates

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), including embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, have the intrinsic ability to differentiate into all three germ layers. This makes them an attractive cell source for regenerative medicine and experimental modeling of normal and diseased organogenesis. However, the differentiation of hPSCs in vitro is heterogeneous and spatially disordered. Cell micropatterning technologies potentially offer the means to spatially control stem cell microenvironments and organize the resultant differentiation fates. Micropatterning hPSCs needs to take into account the stringent requirements for hPSC survival and maintenance. Here, we describe stencil micropatterning as a method that is highly compatible with hPSCs. hPSC micropatterns are specified by the geometries of the cell stencil through-holes, which physically confine the locations where hPSCs can access and attach to the underlying extracellular matrix-coated substrate. Due to this mode of operation, there is greater flexibility to use substrates that can adequately support hPSCs as compared to other cell micropatterning methods. We also highlight critical steps for the successful generation of hPSC micropatterns. As an example, we demonstrate that stencil micropatterning of hPSCs can be used to modulate spatial polarization of cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesions, which in turn determines mesoendoderm differentiation patterns. This simple and robust method to micropattern hPSCs widens the prospects of establishing experimental models to investigate tissue organization and patterning during early embryonic development.

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have the intrinsic ability to differentiate and self-organize into distinct tissue patterns; although this requires the presentation of spatial environmental gradients. We present stencil micropatterning as a simple and robust method to generate biochemical and mechanical gradients for controlling hPSC differentiation patterns.

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), including embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, have the intrinsic ability to differentiate into ...

Developmental Biology

Capillary Force Lithography for Cardiac Tissue Engineering

Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide1. Cardiac tissue engineering holds much promise to deliver groundbreaking medical discoveries with the aims of developing functional tissues for cardiac regeneration as well as in vitro screening assays. However, the ability to create high-fidelity models of heart tissue has proven difficult. The heart&#8217;s extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex structure consisting of both biochemical and biomechanical signals ranging from the micro- to the nanometer scale2. Local mechanical loading conditions and cell-ECM interactions have recently been recognized as vital components in cardiac tissue engineering3-5.
A large portion of the cardiac ECM is composed of aligned collagen fibers with nano-scale diameters that significantly influences tissue architecture and electromechanical coupling2. Unfortunately, few methods have been able to mimic the organization of ECM fibers down to the nanometer scale. Recent advancements in nanofabrication techniques, however, have enabled the design and fabrication of scalable scaffolds that mimic the in vivo structural and substrate stiffness cues of the ECM in the heart6-9.
Here we present the development of two reproducible, cost-effective, and scalable nanopatterning processes for the functional alignment of cardiac cells using the biocompatible polymer poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA)8 and a polyurethane (PU) based polymer. These anisotropically nanofabricated substrata (ANFS) mimic the underlying ECM of well-organized, aligned tissues and can be used to investigate the role of nanotopography on cell morphology and function10-14.
Using a nanopatterned (NP) silicon master as a template, a polyurethane acrylate (PUA) mold is fabricated. This PUA mold is then used to pattern the PU or PLGA hydrogel via UV-assisted or solvent-mediated capillary force lithography (CFL), respectively15,16. Briefly, PU or PLGA pre-polymer is drop dispensed onto a glass coverslip and the PUA mold is placed on top. For UV-assisted CFL, the PU is then exposed to UV radiation (&#955; = 250-400 nm) for curing. For solvent-mediated CFL, the PLGA is embossed using heat (120 &#176;C) and pressure (100 kPa). After curing, the PUA mold is peeled off, leaving behind an ANFS for cell culture. Primary cells, such as neonatal rat ventricular myocytes, as well as human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, can be maintained on the ANFS2.

In this protocol, we demonstrate the fabrication of biomimetic cardiac cell culture substrata made from two distinct polymeric materials using capillary force lithography. The described methods provide a scalable, cost-effective technique to engineer the structure and function of macroscopic cardiac tissues for in vitro and in vivo applications.

Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide1. Cardiac tissue engineering holds much promise to deliver groundbreaking medical ...

Microfabrication of Nanoporous Gold Patterns for Cell-material Interaction Studies

Nanostructured materials with feature sizes in tens of nanometers have enhanced the performance of several technologies, including fuel cells, biosensors, biomedical device coatings, and drug delivery tools. Nanoporous gold (np-Au), produced by a nano-scale self-assembly process, is a relatively new material that exhibits large effective surface area, high electrical conductivity, and catalytic activity. These properties have made np-Au an attractive material to scientific community. Most studies on np-Au employ macro-scale specimens and focus on fundamental science of the material and its catalytic and sensor applications. The macro-scale specimens limit np-Au's potential in miniaturized systems, including biomedical devices. In order to address these issues, we initially describe two different methods to micropattern np-Au thin films on rigid substrates. The first method employs manually-produced stencil masks for creating millimeter-scale np-Au patterns, while the second method uses lift-off photolithography to pattern sub-millimeter-scale patterns. As the np-Au thin films are obtained by sputter-deposition process, they are compatible with conventional microfabrication techniques, thereby amenable to facile integration into microsystems. These systems include electrically-addressable biosensor platforms that benefit from high effective surface area, electrical conductivity, and gold-thiol-based surface bioconjugation. We describe cell culture, immunostaining, and image processing techniques to quantify np-Au's interaction with mammalian cells, which is an important performance parameter for some biosensors. We expect that the techniques illustrated here will assist the integration of np-Au in platforms at various length-scales and in numerous applications, including biosensors, energy storage systems, and catalysts.

We report on techniques to micropattern nanoporous gold thin films via stencil printing and photolithography, as well as methods to culture cells on the microfabricated patterns. In addition, we describe image analysis methods to characterize morphology of the material and the cultured cells using scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy techniques.

Nanostructured materials with feature sizes in tens of nanometers have enhanced the performance of several technologies, including fuel cells, biosensors, ...

Cell Patterning on Photolithographically Defined 
Parylene-C: SiO2 Substrates

Cell patterning platforms support broad research goals, such as construction of predefined in vitro neuronal networks and the exploration of certain central aspects of cellular physiology. To easily combine cell patterning with Multi-Electrode Arrays (MEAs) and silicon-based &#8216;lab on a chip&#8217; technologies, a microfabrication-compatible protocol is required. We describe a method that utilizes deposition of the polymer parylene-C on SiO2&#160;wafers. Photolithography enables accurate and reliable patterning of parylene-C at micron-level resolution. Subsequent activation by immersion in fetal bovine serum (or another specific activation solution) results in a substrate in which cultured cells adhere to, or are repulsed by, parylene or SiO2 regions respectively. This technique has allowed patterning of a broad range of cell types (including primary murine hippocampal cells, HEK 293 cell line, human neuron-like teratocarcinoma cell line, primary murine cerebellar granule cells, and primary human glioma-derived stem-like cells). Interestingly, however, the platform is not universal; reflecting the importance of cell-specific adhesion molecules. This cell patterning process is cost effective, reliable, and importantly can be incorporated into standard microfabrication (chip manufacturing) protocols, paving the way for integration of microelectronic technology.

Cell Patterning on Photolithographically Defined 
Parylene-C: SiO2 Substrates

This protocol describes a microfabrication-compatible method for cell patterning on SiO2. A predefined parylene-C design is photolithographically printed on SiO2 wafers. Following incubation with serum (or other activation solution) cells adhere specifically to (and grow according to the conformity of) underlying parylene-C, whilst being repulsed by SiO2 regions.

Cell patterning platforms support broad research goals, such as construction of predefined in vitro neuronal networks and the exploration of certain ...

Stretching Micropatterned Cells on a PDMS Membrane

Mechanical forces exerted on cells and/or tissues play a major role in numerous processes. We have developed a device to stretch cells plated on a PolyDiMethylSiloxane (PDMS) membrane, compatible with imaging. This technique is reproducible and versatile. The PDMS membrane can be micropatterned in order to confine cells or tissues to a specific geometry. The first step is to print micropatterns onto the PDMS membrane with a deep UV technique. The PDMS membrane is then mounted on a mechanical stretcher. A chamber is bound on top of the membrane with biocompatible grease to allow gliding during the stretch. The cells are seeded and allowed to spread for several hours on the micropatterns. The sample can be stretched and unstretched multiple times with the use of a micrometric screw. It takes less than a minute to apply the stretch to its full extent (around 30%). The technique presented here does not include a motorized device, which is necessary for applying repeated stretch cycles quickly and/or computer controlled stretching, but this can be implemented. Stretching of cells or tissue can be of interest for questions related to cell forces, cell response to mechanical stress or tissue morphogenesis. This video presentation will show how to avoid typical problems that might arise when doing this type of seemingly simple experiment.

This manuscript presents a technique to apply or release forces on adherent cells or tissues using unidirectional stretching.

Mechanical forces exerted on cells and/or tissues  play a major role in numerous processes. We have developed a device to stretch  cells plated on a ...

Simple Lithography-Free Single Cell Micropatterning using Laser-Cut Stencils

Micropatterning techniques have been widely used in cell biology to study effects of controlling cell shape and size on cell fate determination at single cell resolution. Current state-of-the-art single cell micropatterning techniques involve soft lithography and micro-contact printing, which is a powerful technology, but requires trained engineering skills and certain facility support in microfabrication. These limitations require a more accessible technique. Here, we describe a simple alternative lithography-free method: stencil-based single cell patterning. We provide step-by-step procedures including stencil design, polyacrylamide hydrogel fabrication, stencil-based protein incorporation, and cell plating and culture. This simple method can be used to pattern an array of as many as 2,000 cells. We demonstrate the patterning of cardiomyocytes derived from single human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) with distinct cell shapes, from a 1:1 square to a 7:1 adult cardiomyocyte-like rectangle. This stencil-based single cell patterning is lithography-free, technically robust, convenient, inexpensive, and most importantly accessible to those with a limited bioengineering background.

This protocol introduces a lithography-free micropatterning method that is simple and accessible to those with a limited bioengineering background. This method utilizes customized laser-cut stencils to micropattern extracellular matrix proteins in a shape of interest for modulating cell morphologies. The procedure for micropatterning is demonstrated using induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes.

Micropatterning techniques have been widely used in cell biology to study effects of controlling cell shape and size on cell fate determination at single ...

A Versatile Method of Patterning Proteins and Cells

Substrate and cell patterning techniques are widely used in cell biology to study cell-to-cell and cell-to-substrate interactions. Conventional patterning techniques work well only with simple shapes, small areas and selected bio-materials. This article describes a method to distribute cell suspensions as well as substrate solutions into complex, long, closed (dead-end) polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microchannels using negative pressure. This method enables researchers to pattern multiple substrates including fibronectin, collagen, antibodies (Sal-1), poly-D-lysine (PDL), and laminin. Patterning of substrates allows one to indirectly pattern a variety of cells. We have tested C2C12 myoblasts, the PC12 neuronal cell line, embryonic rat cortical neurons, and amphibian retinal neurons. In addition, we demonstrate that this technique can directly pattern fibroblasts in microfluidic channels via brief application of a low vacuum on cell suspensions. The low vacuum does not significantly decrease cell viability as shown by cell viability assays. Modifications are discussed for application of the method to different cell and substrate types. This technique allows researchers to pattern cells and proteins in specific patterns without the need for exotic materials or equipment and can be done in any laboratory with a vacuum.

This report describes a simple, easy to perform technique, using low pressure vacuum, to fill microfluidic channels with cells and substrates for biological research.

Substrate and cell patterning techniques are widely used in cell biology to study cell-to-cell and cell-to-substrate interactions. Conventional patterning ...

Fabrication of Gradient Nanopattern by Thermal Nanoimprinting Technique and Screening of the Response of Human Endothelial Colony-forming Cells

Nanotopography can be found in various extracellular matrices (ECMs) around the body and is known to have important regulatory actions upon cellular reactions. However, it is difficult to determine the relation between the size of a nanostructure and the responses of cells owing to the lack of proper screening tools. Here, we show the development of reproducible and cost-effective gradient nanopattern plates for the manipulation of cellular responses. Using anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) as a master mold, gradient nanopattern plates with nanopillars of increasing diameter ranges [120-200&#8239;nm (GP 120/200), 200-280&#8239;nm (GP 200/280), and 280-360&#8239;nm (GP 280/360)] were fabricated by a thermal imprinting technique. These gradient nanopattern plates were designed to mimic the various sizes of nanotopography in the ECM and were used to screen the responses of human endothelial colony-forming cells (hECFCs). In this protocol, we describe the step-by-step procedure of fabricating gradient nanopattern plates for cell engineering, techniques of cultivating hECFCs from human peripheral blood, and culturing hECFCs on nanopattern plates.

Here, we present a protocol for the fabrication of gradient nanopattern plates via thermal nanoimprinting and the method of screening responses of human endothelial progenitor cells to the nanostructures. By using the described technology, it is possible to produce a scaffold that can manipulate cell behavior by physical stimuli.

Nanotopography can be found in various extracellular matrices (ECMs) around the body and is known to have important regulatory actions upon cellular ...

Control of Cell Geometry through Infrared Laser Assisted Micropatterning

Micropatterning is an established technique in the cell biology community used to study connections between the morphology and function of cellular compartments while circumventing complications arising from natural cell-to-cell variations. To standardize cell shape, cells are either confined in 3D molds or controlled for adhesive geometry through adhesive islands. However, traditional micropatterning techniques based on photolithography and deep UV etching heavily depend on clean rooms or specialized equipment. Here we present an infrared laser assisted micropatterning technique (microphotopatterning) modified from Doyle et al. that can be conveniently set up with commercially available imaging systems. In this protocol, we use a Nikon A1R MP+ imaging system to generate micropatterns with micron precision through an infrared (IR) laser that ablates preset regions on poly-vinyl alcohol coated coverslips. We employ a custom script to enable automated pattern fabrication with high efficiency and accuracy in systems not equipped with a hardware autofocus. We show that this IR laser assisted micropatterning (microphotopatterning) protocol results in defined patterns to which cells attach exclusively and take on the desired shape. Furthermore, data from a large number of cells can be averaged due to the standardization of cell shape. Patterns generated with this protocol, combined with high resolution imaging and quantitative analysis, can be used for relatively high throughput screens to identify molecular players mediating the link between form and function.

The protocol presented here enables automated fabrication of micropatterns that standardizes cell shape to study cytoskeletal structures within mammalian cells. This user-friendly technique can be set up with commercially available imaging systems and does not require specialized equipment inaccessible to standard cell biology laboratories.

Micropatterning is an established technique in the cell biology community used to study connections between the morphology and function of cellular ...

Pattern Generation for Micropattern Traction Microscopy

Micropattern traction microscopy allows control of the shape of single cells and cell clusters. Furthermore, the ability to pattern at the micrometer length scale allows the use of these patterned contact zones for the measurement of traction forces, as each micropatterned dot allows for the formation of a single focal adhesion that then deforms the soft, underlying hydrogel. This approach has been used for a wide range of cell types, including endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, platelets, and epithelial cells. 
This review describes the evolution of techniques that allow the printing of extracellular matrix proteins onto polyacrylamide hydrogels in a regular array of dots of prespecified size and spacing. As micrometer-scale patterns are difficult to directly print onto soft substrates, patterns are first generated on rigid glass coverslips that are then used to transfer the pattern to the hydrogel during gelation. First, the original microcontact printing approach to generate arrays of small dots on the coverslip is described. A second step that removes most of the pattern to leave islands of small dots is required to control the shapes of cells and cell clusters on such arrays of patterned dots. 
Next, an evolution of this approach that allows for the generation of islands of dots using a single subtractive patterning step is described. This approach is greatly simplified for the user but has the disadvantage of a decreased lifetime for the master mold needed to make the patterns. Finally, the computational approaches that have been developed for the analysis of images of displaced dots and subsequent cell-generated traction fields are described, and updated versions of these analysis packages are provided.

We describe improvements to a standard method for measuring cellular traction forces, based on microcontact printing with a single subtractive patterning step of dot arrays of extracellular matrix proteins on soft hydrogels. This method allows for simpler and more consistent fabrication of island patterns, essential for controlling cell cluster shape.

Micropattern traction microscopy allows control of the shape of single cells and cell clusters. Furthermore, the ability to pattern at the micrometer ...

Expanding Nanopatterned Substrates Using Stitch Technique for Nanotopographical Modulation of Cell Behavior

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Rozdziały w tym wideo

Stencil Micropatterning of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells for Probing Spatial Organization of Differentiation Fates

Capillary Force Lithography for Cardiac Tissue Engineering

Microfabrication of Nanoporous Gold Patterns for Cell-material Interaction Studies

Cell Patterning on Photolithographically Defined Parylene-C: SiO₂ Substrates

Stretching Micropatterned Cells on a PDMS Membrane

Simple Lithography-Free Single Cell Micropatterning using Laser-Cut Stencils

A Versatile Method of Patterning Proteins and Cells

Fabrication of Gradient Nanopattern by Thermal Nanoimprinting Technique and Screening of the Response of Human Endothelial Colony-forming Cells

Control of Cell Geometry through Infrared Laser Assisted Micropatterning

Pattern Generation for Micropattern Traction Microscopy

Expanding Nanopatterned Substrates Using Stitch Technique for Nanotopographical Modulation of Cell Behavior

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