This research is supported by Genentech royalties to City of Hope. This work is not supported in whole or in part by the National Institutes of Health.

1. Preparation of Reagents
<ol>
	<li>Make 18.5% paraformaldehyde (PFA) solution. Add 0.925 g of PFA, 4.8 mL of water (use ultrapurified water throughout the protocol) and 35 &#181;L of 1 M KOH in a 50 mL conical plastic tube. Close the cap tightly and heat the tube in a 400-600 mL glass beaker containing approximately 200 mL of water using a microwave. Remove the tube before the water starts boiling and vortex the tube to dissolve PFA. Allow PFA to cool to room temperature and store on ice. 
	NOTE: Repeat heating and mixing until PFA dissolves completely. Prepare PFA solution immediately before crosslinking (step 2.1.3).</li>
	<li>Make 1.25 M glycine solution. Dissolve 14.07 g of glycine in 150 mL of water and filter through a 0.22 &#181;m pore-size filter. Store at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Make ChIP cell lysis buffer. Dissolve 378 mg of PIPES, 10.6 mL of 2 M KCl, and 1.25 g of branched octylphenoxy poly(ethyleneoxy)ethanol in water. Adjust pH to 8.0 with 1 M KOH at 4 &#176;C and make up to 250 mL. Filter through a 0.22 &#181;m pore-size filter and store at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Make micrococcal nuclease (MNase) digestion buffer. To make 1 mL, mix 0.1 mL of 10x MNase digestion buffer, 10 &#181;L of 100x BSA solution, 10 &#181;L of 0.1 M dithiothreitol and 0.88 mL of water.</li>
	<li>Make 1 M NaHCO3. Dissolve 4.2 g of NaHCO3 in 50 mL of water and filter through a 0.22 &#181;m pore-size filter. Store at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Make 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Dissolve 5 g of SDS in 50 mL of water. Store at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Make elution buffer. Mix 15 &#181;L of 1 M NaHCO3, 15 &#181;L of 10% SDS, and 120 &#181;L of water to obtain 150 &#181;L of elution buffer for one sample. 
	NOTE: Increase the volumes proportionally depending on the number of samples.</li>
	<li>Make 3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2) solution. Dissolve 24.6 g of sodium acetate anhydrous in water. Adjust pH to 5.2 with acetic acid and make up 100 mL. Filter through a 0.22 &#181;m pore-size filter and store at room temperature.</li>
</ol>
2. Determination of MNase Digestion Conditions
NOTE: In the step 2 of protocol, an example using VCaP, human prostate cancer cells is presented. Any mammalian cell lines can be used; see Note at the steps.
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of crosslinked chromatin
	<ol>
		<li>Maintain VCaP cells in DME-high glucose supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) at 37 &#176;C in a carbon dioxide incubator. Seed VCaP cells at 4 x 106 cells in six 6 cm dishes in 4 mL of culture media and culture for 3 days. 
		NOTE: Use appropriate culture media for each cell line. Up to 10 x 106 cells can be seeded in a 6 cm or 10 cm dish. For suspended cells, seed cells in T25 flasks. The number of dishes or flasks depends how many doses are tested for MNase digestion. If 4 doses are tested, prepare 6 dishes or flasks. See also step 2.2.</li>
		<li>Detach VCaP cells from one dish using trypsin and count the cell. Calculate cell number in one dish. For suspended cells, remove a small amount of cell suspension from one flask and count cell number.</li>
		<li>Add 0.229 mL of 18.5% PFA to a 6 cm dish in 4 mL of culture media at a final concentration of 1%. Gently but thoroughly swirl a dish or flask to distribute PFA evenly. Incubate at room temperature for exactly 10 min. 
		NOTE: In this step, chromatin and proteins are crosslinked. As PFA is toxic, carry out this step in a chemical fume hood and use proper personal protective equipment.</li>
		<li>After 10 min, add 0.47 mL of 1.25 M glycine solution at a final concentration of 125 mM. Incubate at room temperature for 5 min. 
		NOTE: Glycine neutralizes excess PFA to stop further crosslinking.</li>
		<li>Aspirate formaldehyde/glycine/culture media. Wash the cells by adding 4 mL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) twice. For suspended cells, transfer the cell suspension to a 15 mL conical tube and centrifuge at 300 x g for 5 min at room temperature. Aspirate the supernatant and add one medium volume of PBS and fully suspend. Repeat this step. Dispose liquid wastes properly since they contain formaldehyde.</li>
		<li>Prepare PBS containing protease and phosphatase inhibitor cocktail (PIC) by adding 1/100 volume of 100x PIC to PBS. Aspirate PBS from a dish and add 1 mL per dish of PBS containing PIC. Scrape the cells and transfer the cell suspension to a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube. For suspended cells, simply transfer the suspension to a 1.5 mL tube.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge tubes at 3,000 x g for 5 min at room temperature to recover the cell pellet. Remove the PBS completely using a pipette. Record the cell number per tube and store the cell pellet at -80 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cell lysis and MNase digestion 
	NOTE: The reagent volume in the following steps is based on one tube containing 6 x 106 cells. Adjust reagent volume proportionally depending on cell number; when one tube contains 2 x 106 cells, use 100 &#181;L of ChIP cell lysis buffer (step 2.2.1), MNase digestion buffer (step 2.2.3), and ChIP dilution buffer (step 2.2.5), and 10 &#181;L of 0.5 M EDTA (pH 8.0) (step 2.2.4).
	<ol>
		<li>Thaw the stored cell pellet (VCaP cells, containing 6 x 106 cells per tube) prepared in step 2.1.7 on ice. Prepare ChIP cell lysis buffer supplemented with PIC by adding 1/100 volume of 100x PIC to the buffer. Add 300 &#181;L of ChIP cell lysis buffer supplemented with PIC and resuspend the pellet thoroughly. Vortex the tube for 15 s and incubate the suspension on ice for 10 min.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge at 9,000 x g for 3 min at 4 &#176;C and remove the supernatant completely. Resuspend the pellet in 300 &#181;L of MNase digestion buffer.</li>
		<li>Dilute MNase (2,000 gel unit/&#181;L) with MNase digestion buffer to give 50 gel units/&#181;L. Add 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 &#181;L of 50 gel units/&#181;L of MNase to the suspension and incubate at 37 &#176;C for exactly 10 min, mixing by inversion every 2.5 min. 
		NOTE: Table 1 shows optimal amounts of MNase in several cell lines.</li>
		<li>Add 30 &#181;L of 0.5 M EDTA (pH 8.0) to terminate MNase digestion and vortex briefly. Incubate for 5 min on ice. Centrifuge at 9,000 x g for 5 min at 4 &#176;C and remove the supernatant completely.</li>
		<li>Prepare ChIP dilution buffer supplemented with PIC by adding 1/100 volume of 100x PIC to the buffer. Resuspend the pellet in 300 &#181;L of ChIP dilution buffer supplemented with PIC.</li>
		<li>Sonicate the suspension on ice using a sonicator equipped with a microtip probe. Use the following sonication conditions: amplitude 2, processed time 15 s, pulse ON 5 s, pulse OFF 30 s. Take 1 &#181;L of the suspension and spot onto a slide glass and observe them using a microscope. Ensure that the cell structure is almost broken. 
		NOTE: Figure 1A shows representative microphotographs of the VCaP cell suspension before and after sonication. This step is for releasing digested chromatin into the supernatant by breaking nuclear membranes. A power setting should be adjusted to less than 5% of maximum power and try sonication for 5 s three times with more than a 30 s interval. If wattage control is available, adjust power setting to 5 W and process the samples for total 15 s as mentioned above to give total power of 70-75 J. Check whether the cell structure is broken as mentioned above. If not enough, repeat one more time. The condition described above is practically applied to all cell lines tested.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge at 9,000 x g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C, transfer the supernatant to a new 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube, and save 20 &#181;L of the digested chromatin for step 2.3. Store the remainder at -80 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Reverse crosslinking, purification of DNA, and analysis of digested chromatin
	<ol>
		<li>Add 75 &#181;L of water, 4 &#181;L of 5 M NaCl, and 1 &#181;L of proteinase K to a 1.5 mL screw tube. Add 20 &#181;L of digested chromatin from various MNase digestion conditions prepared in step 2.2.7 to tubes containing water, NaCl, and proteinase K. Close the cap tightly, mix completely, and incubate the tube at 65 &#176;C overnight. 
		NOTE: This step is for the removal of crosslinking between protein and DNA.</li>
		<li>Prepare two 1.5-mL microcentrifuge tubes per condition. Add 100 &#181;L of phenol:chloroform:isoamylalcohol (25:24:1) (PCI) to one 1.5 mL tube. Add 10 &#181;L of 3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2) and 2 &#181;L of glycogen to another tube. 
		NOTE: The use of chloroform:isoamylalcohol is not necessary7. Increasing volume may result in low DNA recovery after ethanol precipitation8.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge the tube containing digested chromatin from step 2.3.1 briefly and add 100 &#181;L of PCI. Close the cap tightly, and vortex vigorously to form emulsion. Centrifuge the tube at maximum speed (e.g., 20,000 x g) for 30 s at room temperature.</li>
		<li>Carefully take the upper phase containing DNA and add to the tube containing PCI prepared in step 2.3.2. Vortex vigorously and centrifuge the tube as step 2.3.3. 
		NOTE: If lower phase is contaminated, centrifuge the tube again, or remove most of the lower phase first, centrifuge the tube, and take the upper phase.</li>
		<li>Carefully take the upper phase as described in step 2.3.4 and add to the tube containing sodium acetate and glycogen prepared in step 2.3.2. Add 250 &#181;L of ethanol. Mix by inversion and incubate for 10 min at room temperature. Centrifuge the tube at maximum speed (e.g., 20,000 x g) for 30 min at 4 &#176;C. 
		NOTE: Incubation of the solution at room temperature does not affect DNA recovery8,9.</li>
		<li>Confirm the pellets on the bottom of the tube. Carefully remove the supernatant so as not to disturb the pellet and add 500 &#181;L of 70% ethanol. Centrifuge the tube at maximum speed (e.g., 20,000 x g) for 5 min at 4 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Remove the supernatant completely and dry the pellet for approximately 5 min at room temperature. Dissolve the pellet in 20 &#181;L of 10 mM Tris&#183;HCl/1 mM EDTA (pH 8.0) (TE). Measure DNA concentration using a UV spectrophotometer.</li>
		<li>Mix 0.5 &#181;g of DNA with a gel loading dye and apply to 2% agarose gel. Electrophorese the samples at 100 V in tris-acetate-EDTA buffer until purple dye migrated to the two-third of the gel and stain a gel with 0.5 &#181;g/mL ethidium bromide for 10 min. Take a picture of the gel. 
		NOTE: See Figure 2 for detail.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. ChromatinImmunoprecipitation
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of digested chromatin
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare thecells. For adherent cells, seed 2-10 x 106 cells per dish in 2 dishes (6 cm or 10 cm) per treatment group and allow the cells to attach to the bottom of dishes for more than 1 day. For suspended cells, seed in 2 T25 flasks per treatment group. Treat the cells as desired.</li>
		<li>Take one dish or flask from each group and count cell number as described in step 2.1.2. Prepare crosslinked chromatin as mentioned in steps 2.1.3-2.1.7.</li>
		<li>Lyse the cell pellet and MNase digestion as described in steps 2.2.1-2.2.7. Use the optimal amount of MNase to digest chromatin as determined in step 2. Store digested chromatin at -80 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Reverse crosslink 20 &#181;L of digested chromatin and purify DNA as described in step 2.3.8. Measure DNA concentration as described in step 2.3.7. Electrophorese the samples in 2% agarose gel to check the size of digested chromatin as mentioned in step 2.3. 
		NOTE: The DNA concentration is identical to that of stored digested chromatin prepared in step 3.1.3.</li>
		<li>Dilute a reverse cross-linked digested chromatin sample from step 3.1.4 to give 10 ng/&#181;L with water and serially dilute to make concentrations of 1, 0.1, and 0.01 ng/&#181;L. Store at -20 &#176;C. 
		NOTE: These samples are used for real-time PCR standards.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Immunoprecipitation 
	NOTE: In the steps 3.2-3.5 of protocol, anti-trimethylated histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3) occupancy in VCaP cells is determined. See also Figure 3.
	<ol>
		<li>Thaw digested chromatin from step 3.1.3. Keep all samples on ice.</li>
		<li>Prepare ChIP dilution buffer supplemented with PIC by adding 1/100 volume of 100x PIC to the buffer. Dilute digested chromatin to 5 &#181;g/500 &#181;L with ChIP dilution buffer supplemented with PIC. Prepare 1,000 &#181;L plus extra for (1) IP with nonimmune IgG (Control IgG), (2) IP with H3K4me3.</li>
		<li>Add 5 &#181;L of 5 &#181;g/500 &#181;L digested chromatin to a 1.5 mL screw tube as an input sample (1% of one IP). Store the sample at -80 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Add 500 &#181;L each of 5 &#181;g/500 &#181;L digested chromatin to a 1.5 mL screw tube as an IP sample. Add 2 &#181;g of antibody to the tube. Close the cap and incubate the tube at 4 &#176;C overnight with gentle mixing using a rocking platform. 
		NOTE: Although optimal antibody amount should be determined empirically, 2 &#181;g per IP is recommended at first.</li>
		<li>Add 30 &#181;L of ChIP-grade protein G magnetic beads per IP. Incubate the tube at 4 &#176;C for 2 h with gentle mixing using a rocking platform. 
		NOTE: Prewash of magnetic beads is not necessary.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Washing immune complex and reversing crosslinking
	<ol>
		<li>Spin down the tube from step 3.2.5 briefly. Place the tube in a polyethylene rack containing neodinium magnets for 1 min. Carefully remove the supernatant by aspiration.</li>
		<li>Add 0.5 mL per tube of low salt immune complex wash buffer. Disperse the beads by gently tapping or briefly vortexing the tube. Incubate the tube at 4 &#176;C for 5 min with gentle mixing using a rocking platform. After 5 min, repeat step 3.3.1.</li>
		<li>Add 0.5 mL of high salt immune complex wash buffer per tube. Disperse and wash the beads as step 3.3.2. After washing, repeat step 3.3.1.</li>
		<li>Add 0.5 mL of LiCl immune complex wash buffer per tube. Disperse and wash the beads as step 3.3.2. After washing, repeat step 3.3.1.</li>
		<li>Place the tube in a magnetic rack for 1 min. Remove the remaining supernatant completely.</li>
		<li>Add 150 &#181;L of elution buffer to the tube. Vortex the tube to disperse the beads completely. Close the cap and incubate the tube at 65 &#176;C for 30 min, mixing by inversion or vortexing every 5 min to disperse the beads thoroughly.</li>
		<li>During the incubation, prepare a 1.5 mL screw tube and add 6 &#181;L of 5 M NaCl and 2 &#181;L of proteinase K. Thaw 1% input sample prepared in step 3.2.3. Add 150 &#181;L of elution buffer, 6 &#181;L of 5 M NaCl and 2 &#181;L of proteinase K to 1% input sample.</li>
		<li>After the incubation, spin down the tube. Place the tube in a magnetic rack for 1 min and transfer the supernatant to the screw tube containing NaCl and proteinase K prepared in step 3.3.7.</li>
		<li>Close the cap and vortex all IP and input samples to mix completely. Incubate the tube at 65 &#176;C overnight.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>DNA purification
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare the tube as described in 2.3.2 and add 150 &#181;L of PCI instead of 100 &#181;L. In another tube, add 12 &#181;L of 3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2) and 2 &#181;L of glycogen.</li>
		<li>Remove the tube from the incubator. Spin down the tube and add 150 &#181;L of PCI.</li>
		<li>Vortex vigorously the tube to form emulsion. Centrifuge the tube at maximum speed (e.g. 20,000 x g) for 30 s at room temperature.</li>
		<li>Carefully transfer 140 &#181;L of the upper phase to the tube containing PCI prepared in step 3.4.1. Repeat step 3.4.3. 
		NOTE: See also Note in step 2.3.4.</li>
		<li>Carefully transfer 120 &#181;L of upper phase to the tube containing sodium acetate and glycogen prepared in step 3.4.1. 
		NOTE: See also Note in step 2.3.4.</li>
		<li>Add 300 &#181;L of ethanol. Mix by inversion and incubate for 10 min at room temperature.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge the tube at maximum speed (e.g., 20,000 x g) for 30 min at 4 &#176;C. Wash the pellet as described in step 2.3.6.</li>
		<li>After drying the pellet as described in step 2.3.7, dissolve the pellet in 50 &#181;L of TE. Store at -20 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Detection of DNA fragments using real-time PCR
	<ol>
		<li>Thaw the following samples: (1) IP with Control IgG, (2) IP with anti-H3K4me3, (3) 1% input sample. Thaw also 4 doses of standards prepared in step 3.1.5 (total of 7 samples). 
		NOTE: Use standards from the same group for the quantification of DNA amounts in the input and IP samples.</li>
		<li>Make PCR working solution for 8 samples. Mix 40 &#181;L of 2x real-time PCR supermix, 8 &#181;L each of 4 &#181;M forward and reverse primers, and 8 &#181;L of water. 
		NOTE: One PCR reaction mixture contains 5 &#181;L of 2x real-time PCR supermix, 1 &#181;L each of 4 &#181;M forward and reverse primers, and 1 &#181;L of water. Primer sequences are listed in Table 2.</li>
		<li>Aliquot 8 &#181;L of PCR working solution into one well of a PCR plate. Add 2 &#181;L of samples from step 3.4.8 or standards from step 3.1.5.</li>
		<li>Seal the PCR plate and run PCR using the following conditions: 1) 95 &#176;C for 3 min for initial denaturation, 2) 95 &#176;C for 10 s for denaturation, 3) 56 &#176;C for 30 s for annealing, 4) 72 &#176;C for 30 s for extension and data collection, repeat steps 2) to 4) for 55 cycles. After cycling, measure a melting curve of the PCR product. Analyze the data. 
		NOTE: Raw data for Figure 3 are shown in Table 3. Calculate starting quantity (SQ) of the samples using a standard curve. Multiply SQ in 1% input by 100 to adjust a SQ of 1% input sample to one IP to give adjusted SQ in Input (Eq. 1). Divide SQ in IP sample by adjusted SQ in Input to give % input value (percent input method, Eq. 2). To calculate fold enrichment, divide SQ in IP with anti-H3K4me3 by SQ in IP with control IgG (fold enrichment method, Eq. 3). 
		Adjusted SQ in Input = (SQ in 1% input) x 100 (1) 
		Percent input of H3K4me3 = 100 x (SQ in IP with anti-H3K4me3) / (Adjusted SQ in Input) (2) 
		Fold enrichment of H3K4me3 = (SQ in IP with anti-H3K4me3) / (SQ in IP with control IgG) (3)</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Although sonication is commonly used to obtain fragmented chromatin, it is time-consuming and cumbersome to identify reproducible conditions. In this protocol, we used MNase digestion because enzyme digestion should be easier to identify reproducible conditions. A brief sonication step after MNase digestion (see step 2.2) was necessary to break the cell membrane and to release the digested chromatin. Therefore, the sonication power in our protocol should be as low as possible. We use the same sonication conditions for al...

Gene expression in mammalian cells is tightly and dynamically regulated, and transcription is one of the key steps. Gene transcription is mainly regulated by transcription factors and histones. A transcription factor is a protein that binds to specific DNA sequences and controls gene transcription. These factors either promote or inhibit the recruitment of RNA polymerase II (PolII), which initiates mRNA synthesis from genomic DNA as a template1. Histone modifications such as acetylation and methylation of histone tail residues positively and negatively affect gene transcription by changing the chromatin structure2. Since alterations in gene expression affect the cellular context, it is essential to examine the molecular mechanisms by which transcription is regulated.
To date, several methods for investigating the regulation of gene transcription are available. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), also called a gel shift assay, is used for analyzing a protein-DNA interaction3. A nuclear extract from cells of interest is incubated with a radioactive isotope (for example, 32P)-labeled DNA probe and electrophoresed on a polyacrylamide gel. Its autoradiogram shows that the DNA-protein complex migrates slower than the probe in a gel. In the presence of an antibody against the protein, the DNA-protein-antibody complex migrates in a gel more slowly than the DNA-protein complex. This supershifted band reveals specific binding between the DNA and protein. However, EMSA only determines a specific DNA-protein interaction in a cell-free system, and therefore it remains unknown whether the interaction controls transcription in living cells. The transient reporter assay, commonly called luciferase reporter assay, was developed to address gene expression regulation in cells. Typically, an upstream genomic region of a gene of interest is inserted into a reporter plasmid, transiently transfected into cells, and the reporter activity is measured. A variety of deletion mutants allows the identification of regions that are responsible for gene regulation. Even though a reporter assay is a useful tool for identifying transcription factors and binding DNA sequences controlling transcription, this method has a major disadvantage in that a reporter plasmid is free of chromatin structure and does not reflect &#8220;real&#8221; transcription machinery. In addition, changes in histone modifications cannot be determined by the system.
The development of the chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) method was based on Jackson and Chalkley&#8217;s reports that &#8220;whole cell&#8221; fixation with formaldehyde preserved chromatin structure4,5. Since then, many related techniques have been developed and improved6. In ChIP assays, cells are fixed with formaldehyde to cross-link DNA and proteins. The chromatin is fragmented and then immunoprecipitated with antibodies of interest. The immune complex is washed, and DNA is purified. PCR amplification with primers targeted to a particular region of the genome reveals the occupancy of proteins of interest in the genome.
Although ChIP is a powerful tool to identify the interactions of proteins such as transcription factors and modified histones with DNA, the method involves some difficulties, such as a chromatin fragmentation step, in practice. Sonication has been widely used for shearing chromatin; however, it is cumbersome to identify reproducible conditions. Micrococcal nuclease (MNase) treatment is an alternative method for chromatin shearing. MNase is an endo-exonuclease that digests double-stranded, single-stranded, circular and linear DNA and RNA. It is relatively easy to determine the conditions, including the amounts of chromatin and enzyme, temperature, and incubation time, for optimum chromatin fragmentation. We modified and simplified the existing protocols, and we established a straightforward and reproducible method. This paper provides the protocol for a ChIP assay using MNase in mammalian cells.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1643px;" width="1642">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">0.5 M EDTA (pH 8.0)</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AM9010</td>
			<td style="width:793px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">2 M KCl</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AM9010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">2X iQ SYBR Green supermix</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Bio-Rad</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">1706862</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">5 M NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AM9010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">50 bp DNA ladder</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N3236S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:557px;">Agarose</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Research Product International</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A20090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Branched octylphenoxy poly(ethyleneoxy)ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">I8896</td>
			<td>IGEPAL CA-630</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">ChIP-grade protein G magnetic beads</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Cell signaling technology</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">9006S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) Dilution Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">20-153</td>
			<td>Buffer composition: 0.01% SDS, 1.1% Triton X- 100, 1.2mM EDTA, 16.7mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.1, 167mM NaCl.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Gel Loading Dye Purple (6X)</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">B7024S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Glycine</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Bio-Rad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">161-0724</td>
			<td>Electropheresis grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Glycogen</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">G1767</td>
			<td>19-22 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Halt Protease and Phosphatase Inhibitor Cocktail, EDTA-free (100x)</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">78445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">High Salt Immune Complex Wash Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">20-155</td>
			<td>Buffer composition: 0.1% SDS, 1% Triton X-100, 2mM EDTA, 20mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.1, 500mM NaCl.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Histone H3K4me3 antibody (pAb)</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Active Motif</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">39915</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">LiCl Immune Complex Wash Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">20-156</td>
			<td>Buffer composition: 0.25M LiCl, 1% IGEPAL CA630, 1% deoxycholic acid (sodium salt), 1mM EDTA, 10mM Tris, pH 8.1.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Low Salt Immune Complex Wash Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">20-154</td>
			<td>Buffer composition: 0.1% SDS, 1% Triton X-100, 2mM EDTA, 20mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.1, 150mM NaCl.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Magna GrIP Rack (8 well)</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">20-400</td>
			<td style="width:793px;">Any kind of magnetic separation stands that are compatible with a 1.5 mL tube is fine.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Micrococcal nuclease</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M0247S</td>
			<td>comes with 10 x buffer (500 mM Tris-HCl, 50 mM CaCl2, pH 7.9 @ 25 &#176;C) and 100 x BSA (10 mg/ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">NaHCO3</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">JT Baker</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3506-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Normal rabbit IgG</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12-370</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">PIPES</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P6757</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Proteinase K</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3115887001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Real-time PCR system</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Bio-Rad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CFX96, C1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">RNA pol II CTD phospho Ser5 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Active Motif</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">39749</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">SDS</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Boehringer Mannheim</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">100155</td>
			<td>Electropheresis grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">sodium acetate</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S5636</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">Sonicator equipped with a microtip probe</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">QSONICA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Q700</td>
			<td style="width:793px;">Any kind of sonicators that are compatible with a 1.5 mL tube is fine.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:557px;">UltraPure Phenol:Chloroform:Isoamyl Alcohol (25:24:1, v/v)</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15593031</td>
			<td>pH 8.05</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

chromatin immunoprecipitation assay using micrococcal nucleases in mammalian cells

To express cellular phenotypes in organisms, living cells execute gene expression accordingly, and transcriptional programs play a central role in gene expression. The cellular transcriptional machinery and its chromatin modification proteins coordinate to regulate transcription. To analyze transcriptional regulation at the molecular level, several experimental methods such as electrophoretic mobility shift, transient reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays are available. We describe a modified ChIP assay in detail in this article because of its advantages in directly showing histone modifications and the interactions between proteins and DNA in cells. One of the key steps in a successful ChIP assay is chromatin shearing. Although sonication is commonly used for shearing chromatin, it is difficult to identify reproducible conditions. Instead of shearing chromatin by sonication, we utilized enzymatic digestion with micrococcal nuclease (MNase) to obtain more reproducible results. In this article, we provide a straightforward ChIP assay protocol using MNase.

Digesting chromatin is one of the important steps for a ChIP assay. We used MNase to digest chromatin to obtain a mixture of nucleosome oligomers. In the MNase digestion step, MNase can go through the nuclear membrane and digest chromatin. However, the digested chromatin cannot go through the membrane and remains in the nuclei. To release the digested chromatin from the nuclei, brief sonication is needed. Figure 1A shows microphotographs before and after sonication of VCaP cell suspension. W...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay Using Micrococcal Nucleases in Mammalian Cells at JoVE.com

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay Using Micrococcal Nucleases in Mammalian Cells

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms of gene regulation. However, the method involves difficulties in obtaining reproducible chromatin fragmentation by mechanical shearing. Here, we provide an improved protocol for a ChIP assay using enzymatic digestion.

To express cellular phenotypes in organisms, living cells execute gene expression accordingly, and transcriptional programs play a central role in gene ...

chromatin-immunoprecipitation-assay-using-micrococcal-nucleases

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JoVE Journal

Genetics

14.3K Views.  Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms of gene regulation. However, the method involves difficulties in obtaining reproducible chromatin fragmentation by mechanical shearing. Here, we provide an improved protocol for a ChIP assay using enzymatic digestion.

Video: Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay Using Micrococcal Nucleases in Mammalian Cells

Analysis of the c-KIT Ligand Promoter Using Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

Multiple cellular processes, including DNA replication and repair, DNA recombination, and gene expression, require interactions between proteins and DNA. Therefore, DNA-protein interactions regulate multiple physiological, pathophysiological, and biological functions, such as cell differentiation, cell proliferation, cell cycle control, chromosome stability, epigenetic gene regulation, and cell transformation. In eukaryotic cells, the DNA interacts with histone and nonhistone proteins and is condensed into chromatin. Several technical tools can be used to analyze DNA-protein interactions, such as the Electrophoresis (gel) Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA) and DNase I footprinting. However, these techniques analyze the protein-DNA interaction in vitro, not within the cellular context. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a technique that captures proteins at their specific DNA binding sites, thereby allowing for the identification of DNA-protein interactions within their chromatin context. It is done by fixation&#160;of the DNA-protein interaction, followed by&#160;immunoprecipitation of the protein of interest. Subsequently, the genomic site that the protein was bound to is characterized. Here, we describe and discuss ChIP and demonstrate its analytical value for the identification of the Transforming Growth Factor-&#946; (TGF-&#946;)-induced binding of the transcription factor SMAD2 to SMAD Binding Elements (SBE) within the promoter region of the tyrosine-protein kinase Kit (c-KIT) receptor ligand Stem Cell Factor (SCF).

DNA-protein interactions are essential for multiple biological processes. During the evaluation of cellular functions, the analysis of DNA-protein interactions is indispensable for understanding gene regulation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool to analyze such interactions in vivo.

Multiple cellular processes, including DNA replication and repair, DNA recombination, and gene expression, require interactions between proteins and DNA. ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) in Mouse T-cell Lines

Signaling pathways regulate gene expression programs via the modulation of the chromatin structure at different levels, such as by post-translational modifications (PTMs) of histone tails, the exchange of canonical histones with histone variants, and nucleosome eviction. Such regulation requires the binding of signal-sensitive transcription factors (TFs) that recruit chromatin-modifying enzymes at regulatory elements defined as enhancers. Understanding how signaling cascades regulate enhancer activity requires a comprehensive analysis of the binding of TFs, chromatin modifying enzymes, and the occupancy of specific histone marks and histone variants. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays utilize highly specific antibodies to immunoprecipitate specific protein/DNA complexes. The subsequent analysis of the purified DNA allows for the identification the region occupied by the protein recognized by the antibody. This work describes a protocol to efficiently perform ChIP of histone proteins in a mature mouse T-cell line. The presented protocol allows for the performance of ChIP assays in a reasonable timeframe and with high reproducibility.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP in Mouse T-cell Lines

This work describes a protocol for chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) using a mature mouse T-cell line. This protocol is suitable to investigate the distribution of specific histone marks at specific promoter sites or genome-wide.

Signaling pathways regulate gene expression programs via the modulation of the chromatin structure at different levels, such as by post-translational ...

Generation of Native Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Sequencing Libraries for Nucleosome Density Analysis

We present a modified native chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experimental protocol compatible with a Gaussian mixture distribution based analysis methodology (nucleosome density ChIP-seq; ndChIP-seq) that enables the generation of combined measurements of micrococcal nuclease (MNase) accessibility with histone modification genome-wide. Nucleosome position and local density, and the posttranslational modification of their histone subunits, act in concert to regulate local transcription states. Combinatorial measurements of nucleosome accessibility with histone modification generated by ndChIP-seq allows for the simultaneous interrogation of these features. The ndChIP-seq methodology is applicable to small numbers of primary cells inaccessible to cross-linking based ChIP-seq protocols. Taken together, ndChIP-seq enables the measurement of histone modification in combination with local nucleosome density to obtain new insights into shared mechanisms that regulate RNA transcription within rare primary cell populations.

We present a modified native chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) methodology for the generation of sequence datasets suitable for a nucleosome density ChIP-seq analytical framework integrating micrococcal nuclease (MNase) accessibility with histone modification measurements.

We present a modified native chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experimental protocol compatible with a Gaussian mixture distribution ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) Protocol for Low-abundance Embryonic Samples

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a widely-used technique for mapping the localization of post-translationally modified histones, histone variants, transcription factors, or chromatin-modifying enzymes at a given locus or on a genome-wide scale. The combination of ChIP assays with next-generation sequencing (i.e., ChIP-Seq) is a powerful approach to globally uncover gene regulatory networks and to improve the functional annotation of genomes, especially of non-coding regulatory sequences. ChIP protocols normally require large amounts of cellular material, thus precluding the applicability of this method to investigating rare cell types or small tissue biopsies. In order to make the ChIP assay compatible with the amount of biological material that can typically be obtained in vivo during early vertebrate embryogenesis, we describe here a simplified ChIP protocol in which the number of steps required to complete the assay were reduced to minimize sample loss. This ChIP protocol has been successfully used to investigate different histone modifications in various embryonic chicken and adult mouse tissues using low to medium cell numbers (5 x 104 - 5 x 105 cells). Importantly, this protocol is compatible with ChIP-seq technology using standard library preparation methods, thus providing global epigenomic maps in highly relevant embryonic tissues.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP Protocol for Low-abundance Embryonic Samples

Here, we describe a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and ChIP-seq library preparation protocol to generate global epigenomic profiles from low-abundance chicken embryonic samples.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a widely-used technique for mapping the localization of post-translationally modified histones, histone variants, ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) of Histone Modifications from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as acetylation, methylation and phosphorylation, are dynamically regulated by a series of enzymes that add or remove these marks in response to signals received by the cell. These PTMS are key contributors to the regulation of processes such as gene expression control and DNA repair. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (chIP) has been an instrumental approach for dissecting the abundance and localization of many histone PTMs throughout the genome in response to diverse perturbations to the cell. Here, a versatile method for performing chIP of post-translationally modified histones from the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) is described. This method relies on crosslinking of proteins and DNA using formaldehyde treatment of yeast cultures, generation of yeast lysates by bead beating, solubilization of chromatin fragments by micrococcal nuclease, and immunoprecipitation of histone-DNA complexes. DNA associated with the histone mark of interest is purified and subjected to quantitative PCR analysis to evaluate its enrichment at multiple loci throughout the genome. Representative experiments probing the localization of the histone marks H3K4me2 and H4K16ac in wildtype and mutant yeast are discussed to demonstrate data analysis and interpretation. This method is suitable for a variety of histone PTMs and can be performed with different mutant strains or in the presence of diverse environmental stresses, making it an excellent tool for investigating changes in chromatin dynamics under different conditions.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP of Histone Modifications from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Here, we describe a protocol for chromatin immunoprecipitation of modified histones from the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Immunoprecipitated DNA is subsequently used for quantitative PCR to interrogate the abundance and localization of histone post-translational modifications throughout the genome.

Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as acetylation, methylation and phosphorylation, are dynamically regulated by a series of enzymes ...

Adaptation of Hybridization Capture of Chromatin-associated Proteins for Proteomics to Mammalian Cells

The hybridization capture of chromatin-associated proteins for proteomics (HyCCAPP) technology was initially developed to uncover novel DNA-protein interactions in yeast. It allows analysis of a target region of interest without the need for prior knowledge about likely proteins bound to the target region. This, in theory, allows HyCCAPP to be used to analyze any genomic region of interest, and it provides sufficient flexibility to work in different cell systems. This method is not meant to study binding sites of known transcription factors, a task better suited for Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and ChIP-like methods. The strength of HyCCAPP lies in its ability to explore DNA regions for which there is limited or no knowledge about the proteins bound to it. It can also be a convenient method to avoid biases (present in ChIP-like methods) introduced by protein-based chromatin enrichment using antibodies. Potentially, HyCCAPP can be a powerful tool to uncover truly novel DNA-protein interactions. To date, the technology has been predominantly applied to yeast cells or to high copy repeat sequences in mammalian cells. In order to become the powerful tool we envision, HyCCAPP approaches need to be optimized to efficiently capture single-copy loci in mammalian cells. Here, we present our adaptation of the initial yeast HyCCAPP capture protocol to human cell lines, and show that single-copy chromatin regions can be efficiently isolated with this modified protocol.

This is a method to identify novel DNA-interacting proteins at specific target loci, relying on sequence-specific capture of crosslinked chromatin for subsequent proteomic analyses. No prior knowledge about potential binding proteins, nor cell modifications are required. Initially developed for yeast, the technology has now been adapted for mammalian cells.

The hybridization capture of chromatin-associated proteins for proteomics (HyCCAPP) technology was initially developed to uncover novel DNA-protein ...

Formaldehyde-assisted Isolation of Regulatory Elements to Measure Chromatin Accessibility in Mammalian Cells

Appropriate gene expression in response to extracellular cues, that is, tissue- and lineage-specific gene transcription, critically depends on highly defined states of chromatin organization. The dynamic architecture of the nucleus is controlled by multiple mechanisms and shapes the transcriptional output programs. It is, therefore, important to determine locus-specific chromatin accessibility in a reliable fashion that is preferably independent from antibodies, which can be a potentially confounding source of experimental variability. Chromatin accessibility can be measured by various methods, including the Formaldehyde-Assisted Isolation of Regulatory Elements (FAIRE) assay, that allow the determination of general chromatin accessibility in a relatively low number of cells. Here we describe a FAIRE protocol that allows simple, reliable, and fast identification of genomic regions with a low protein occupancy. In this method, the DNA is covalently bound to the chromatin proteins using formaldehyde as a crosslinking agent and sheared to small pieces. The free DNA is afterwards enriched using phenol:chloroform extraction. The ratio of free DNA is determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) or DNA sequencing (DNA-seq) compared to a control sample representing total DNA. The regions with a looser chromatin structure are enriched in the free DNA sample, thus allowing the identification of genomic regions with lower chromatin compaction.

The plasticity of nuclear architecture is controlled by dynamic epigenetic mechanisms including non-coding RNAs, DNA methylation, nucleosome repositioning as well as histone composition and modification. Here we describe a Formaldehyde-Assisted Isolation of Regulatory Elements (FAIRE) protocol which allows the determination of chromatin accessibility in a reproducible, inexpensive, and straightforward manner.

Appropriate gene expression in response to extracellular cues, that is, tissue- and lineage-specific gene transcription, critically depends on highly ...

CRISPR-Mediated Reorganization of Chromatin Loop Structure

Recent studies have clearly shown that long-range, three-dimensional chromatin looping interactions play a significant role in the regulation of gene expression, but whether looping is responsible for or a result of alterations in gene expression is still unknown. Until recently, how chromatin looping affects the regulation of gene activity and cellular function has been relatively ambiguous, and limitations in existing methods to manipulate these structures prevented in-depth exploration of these interactions. To resolve this uncertainty, we engineered a method for selective and reversible chromatin loop re-organization using CRISPR-dCas9 (CLOuD9). The dynamism of the CLOuD9 system has been demonstrated by successful localization of CLOuD9 constructs to target genomic loci to modulate local chromatin conformation. Importantly, the ability to reverse the induced contact and restore the endogenous chromatin conformation has also been confirmed. Modulation of gene expression with this method establishes the capacity to regulate cellular gene expression and underscores the great potential for applications of this technology in creating stable de novo chromatin loops that markedly affect gene expression in the contexts of cancer and development.

Chromatin looping plays a significant role in gene regulation; however, there have been no technological advances that allow for selective and reversible modification of chromatin loops. Here we describe a powerful system for chromatin loop re-organization using CRISPR-dCas9 (CLOuD9), demonstrated to selectively and reversibly modulate gene expression at targeted loci.

Recent studies have clearly shown that long-range, three-dimensional chromatin looping interactions play a significant role in the regulation of gene ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation of Murine Brown Adipose Tissue

Most cellular processes are regulated by transcriptional modulation of specific gene programs. Such modulation is achieved through the combined actions of a wide range of transcription factors (TFs) and cofactors mediating transcriptional activation or repression via changes in chromatin structure. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a useful molecular biology approach for mapping histone modifications and profiling transcription factors/cofactors binding to DNA, thus providing a snapshot of the dynamic nuclear changes occurring during different biological processes.
To study transcriptional regulation in adipose tissue, samples derived from in vitro cell cultures of immortalized or primary cell lines are often favored in ChIP assays because of the abundance of starting material and reduced biological variability. However, these models represent a limited snapshot of the actual chromatin state in living organisms. Thus, there is a critical need for optimized protocols to perform ChIP on adipose tissue samples derived from animal models.
Here we describe a protocol for efficient ChIP-seq of both histone modifications and non-histone proteins in brown adipose tissue (BAT) isolated from a mouse. The protocol is optimized for investigating genome-wide localization of proteins of interest and epigenetic markers in the BAT, which is a morphologically and physiologically distinct tissue amongst fat depots.

Here we describe a protocol for efficient chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) followed by high-throughput DNA sequencing (ChIP-seq) of brown adipose tissue (BAT) isolated from a mouse. This protocol is suitable for both mapping histone modifications and investigating genome-wide localization of non-histone proteins of interest in vivo.

Most cellular processes are regulated by transcriptional modulation of specific gene programs. Such modulation is achieved through the combined actions of ...

Discovering CsgD Regulatory Targets in Salmonella Biofilm Using Chromatin Immunoprecipitation and High-Throughput Sequencing (ChIP-seq)

Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) is a technique that can be used to discover the regulatory targets of transcription factors, histone modifications, and other DNA-associated proteins. ChIP-seq data can also be used to find differential binding of transcription factors in different environmental conditions or cell types. Initially, ChIP was performed through hybridization on a microarray (ChIP-chip); however, ChIP-seq has become the preferred method through technological advancements, decreasing financial barriers to sequencing, and massive amounts of high-quality data output. Techniques of performing ChIP-seq with bacterial biofilms, a major source of persistent and chronic infections, are described in this protocol. ChIP-seq is performed on Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium biofilm and planktonic cells, targeting the master biofilm regulator, CsgD, to determine differential binding in the two cell types. Here, we demonstrate the appropriate amount of biofilm to harvest, normalizing to a planktonic control sample, homogenizing biofilm for cross-linker access, and performing routine ChIP-seq steps to obtain high quality sequencing results.

Discovering CsgD Regulatory Targets in Salmonella Biofilm Using Chromatin Immunoprecipitation and High-Throughput Sequencing ChIP-seq

Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with next-generation sequencing (ChIP-seq) is a method used to establish interactions between transcription factors and the genomic sequences they control. This protocol outlines techniques for performing ChIP-seq with bacterial biofilms, using Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium bacterial biofilm as an example.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) is a technique that can be used to discover the regulatory targets of transcription ...