This work was supported partly by NIH research grants R01NS103931, R01AR062207, R01AR061484, and a DOD research grant W81XWH-16-1-0482.

1. Collect and lyse cells
<ol>
	<li>Grow 293T cells using Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle medium (DMEM) with 10% fetal bovine serum, 2 mM glutamine and 1% antibiotics. Incubate cultures at 37 &#176;C under 5% CO2. 
	NOTE: The growth state of the cells may affect the stability of subsequent experiments.</li>
	<li>Expand cells in culture until reaching 80&#8210;90% confluence.</li>
	<li>Mix 345 &#956;L of cell lysis reagent (see the Table of Materials) with 25 &#956;L of 20x protease inhibitor cocktail, 25 &#956;L of 1 M sodium fluoride, 50 &#956;L of 100 mM &#946;-glycerophosphate, 50 &#956;L of 50 mM sodium pyrophosphate, and 5 &#956;L of 200 mM sodium orthovanadate. Keep the lysis buffer chilled on ice. 
	NOTE: Other lysis buffers with various detergents (e.g., Triton X-100 or NP-40) can be used with DARTS as long as they are non-denaturing. Membrane proteins or nuclear proteins can be extracted by adding 0.4% Triton X-100 or 0.4% NP-40 to the cell lysate.</li>
	<li>Wash the cells twice with cold phosphate-buffered saline (PBS).</li>
	<li>Use a cell scraper to collect the cells in an appropriate amount of cell lysis buffer and transfer the lysing cells into a 1.5 mL tube. 
	NOTE: The number of cells needed for each DARTS experiment will vary based on how much protein can be extracted from various cell lines. In general, the protein concentration of the lysate used is between 4&#8210;6 &#956;g/&#956;L. One 10 cm plate of 293T cells at 85&#8210;90% confluency, lysed with 300 &#956;L of lysis buffer typically results in a lysate with a protein concentration of ~5 &#956;g/&#956;L.</li>
	<li>Mix the lysis buffer/lysing cells well and incubate the tube on ice for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the tube at 18,000 &#215; g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Transfer the supernatant into a new 1.5 mL tube and keep chilled on ice.</li>
	<li>Perform a BCA assay to approximate the protein concentration of lysates.</li>
</ol>
2. Incubate protein lysates with the small molecule
<ol>
	<li>Split 99 &#956;L of the lysates into two 1.5 mL tubes.</li>
	<li>Make a starting stock concentration of 10 mM small molecule. When performing DARTS, one may begin with a higher concentration of the small molecule (5&#8210;10x the EC50 value) to ensure optimal binding.
	<ol>
		<li>Add either 1 &#956;L of solvent that the small molecule is soluble in or 1 &#181;L of small molecule stock solutions to each aliquot of lysate. Incubate cell lysate with the solutions for 30&#8210;60 min at room temperature with shaking.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>On ice, establish serial dilutions (1:200, 1:400, 1:800 and 1:1600) of freshly thawed pronase solution in 1x TNC (For 1 mL of 10x TNC buffer, mix 300 &#956;L of ultrapure water with 100 &#956;L of 5 M sodium chloride, 100 &#956;L of 1 M calcium chloride, and 500 &#956;L of 1 M Tris-HCl, pH 8.0).</li>
	<li>Examine a wide-breadth of pronase:protein ratios (e.g., spanning from 1:100 to 1:2000) to guarantee observability of the step-wise effect of pronase on target(s). 
	NOTE: To calculate pronase concentrations (example): 5 &#956;g/&#956;L protein concentration x 20 &#956;L sample = 100 &#956;g protein. For a pronase:protein ratio of 1:100 we need 0.5 &#956;g/&#956;L (100 &#956;g &#247; 100 &#247; 2 &#956;L) pronase solution. This experiment may have to be repeated several times to obtain a suitable range of pronase:protein ratios.</li>
</ol>
3. Perform proteolysis
NOTE: For proteolysis, steps are carried out at room temperature unless otherwise noted
<ol>
	<li>Following incubation with the small molecule, divide each aliquot into 20 &#956;L samples.</li>
	<li>Add 2 &#956;L of the range of pronase solutions in each sample at specific intervals (every 30 s). Use an equal volume of 1x TNC buffer to establish an undigested control sample.</li>
	<li>After 5&#8210;20 min, halt digestion via addition of 2 &#956;L of cold 20x protease inhibitor cocktail every 30 s. Mix well and incubate on ice for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Dilute samples with the appropriate volume of 5x SDS-PAGE loading buffer and boil at 95 &#176;C for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Carry out the next portion of the experiment or store the protein sample at &#8722;80 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
4. Quantification and analysis
<ol>
	<li>After DARTS, perform Coomassie blue staining according to the previously published protocol22.</li>
	<li>The stained protein bands should be very clear after destaining. Pour off the used destain solution and add fresh 1% acetic acid solution to cover the gel. Put the gel under the light to observe the bands with significant differences between groups with (sample group) or without (control group) the small molecule.</li>
	<li>Cut the two corresponding bands from the gel with a sterile instrument and perform LC-MS/MS immediately. 
	NOTE: LC-MS/MS needs to be done as soon as possible because the proteins in the gel will degrade continuously.</li>
	<li>Digest the bands, extract peptides and perform LC-MS/MS analysis23.
	<ol>
		<li>To analyze LC-MS/MS data, first identify all the proteins in the individual band. Second, use peptide spectrum match (PSM) to represent the abundance of each protein. 
		NOTE: PSM provides the total number of identified peptide sequences for the protein, including those redundantly identified. In general, how often a peptide is identified/sequenced can be used as a rough estimate of how abundant the protein is in the sample. Proteins enriched in the sample group over the control group are proteins of interest.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Procure the primary antibodies of the selected proteins. Perform western blot to verify that the small molecule can bind directly to the potential target proteins24.
	<ol>
		<li>Load equal amounts of protein into the wells of an 8% SDS-PAGE gel, along with an appropriate molecular weight marker. Run the gel for 30 min at 80 V, then adjust the voltage to 120 V and continue running for 1&#8210;2 h.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Quantify the different target protein bands using image processing and analysis software (see the Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Analyze the data and draw the curves.
	<ol>
		<li>Determination of the proteolytic curve for a target protein
		<ol>
			<li>The pronase:protein ratio is varied when performing proteolysis. Normalize data from image analysis by attributing the band intensity values corresponding to the undigested bands to 100%.</li>
			<li>Use nonlinear regression analysis of the statistical analysis and drawing software to plot a curve of normalized data for relative band intensity and pronase:protein ratios.</li>
			<li>First, open the software, select the type of table and graph as XY and allow for 3 replicate values in side-by-side subcolumns. Then enter the corresponding data in the space below x and y. Under x, input the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (as place holders corresponding pronase:protein ratios).</li>
			<li>In the y column, enter the normalized data for relative band intensities. Perform &#8220;Nonlinear regression&#8221; and implement a &#8220;Dose-response-Stimulation&#8221; using the &#8220;Log (agonist) versus response&#8212;Variable slope (four parameters)&#8221; equation.</li>
			<li>Convert the annotations of the X-axis in the curve to the corresponding pronase:protein ratios.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Determination of the dose-dependence curve for a target protein 
		NOTE: For dose-dependence analysis, the molarity of the small molecule is differed across samples. The stable pronase:protein ratio should be informed by analysis of proteolysis data. The pronase:protein ratio that showed maximal difference in target protein intensity during the proteolytic curve should be used for the dose-dependence experiment.
		<ol>
			<li>Quantify the different target protein bands using an image analysis software. As in generation of the dose-dependence curve, normalize data from image analysis by attributing the band intensity values corresponding to the least digested band to 100%.</li>
			<li>Apply the nonlinear regression analysis within the statistical analysis and drawing software to the normalized data. First, open the software, select the type of table and graph as XY, and enter 3 replicate values in side-by-side subcolumns.</li>
			<li>Then, enter the corresponding data in the space below x and y. For the &#8216;x&#8217; variable, input different concentrations of the small molecule; &#8216;y&#8217; includes the corresponding normalized data for relative band intensity.</li>
			<li>Transform x values using X = Log(X). Finally, employ nonlinear regression, and implement a dose-response stimulation using the &#8220;Log (agonist) versus response&#8212;Variable slope (four parameters)&#8221; equation.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

DARTS allows for identification of small molecule targets by exploiting the protective effect of protein binding against degradation. DARTS does not require any chemical modification or immobilization of the small molecule26. This allows small molecules to be used to determine their direct binding protein targets. Standard assessment criteria for the classical DARTS method include gel staining, mass spectrometry and western blotting12,13. ...

Identifying small molecule target proteins is essential to the mechanistic understanding and development of potential therapeutic drugs1,2,3. Affinity chromatography, as a classical method for identifying the target proteins of small molecules, has yielded good results4,5. However, this method has limitations, in that chemical modification of small molecules often results in reduced or altered binding specificity or affinity. To overcome these limitations, several new strategies have recently been developed and applied to identify the small molecule targets without chemical modification of the small molecules. These direct methods for target identification of label-free small molecules include drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS)6, stability of proteins from rates of oxidation (SPROX)7, cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA)8,9, and thermal proteome profiling (TPP)10. These methods are highly advantageous because they use natural, unmodified small molecules and rely only on direct binding interactions to find target proteins11.
Among these new methods, DARTS is a comparatively simple methodology that can easily be adopted by most labs12,13. DARTS depends on the concept that ligand-bound proteins demonstrate modified susceptibility to enzymatic degradation relative to unbound proteins. The new target protein can be detected by examination of the altered band in SDS-PAGE gel through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). This approach has been successfully implemented for identification of previously unknown targets of natural products and drugs14,15,16,17,18,19. It is also powerful as a means to screen or validate binding of compounds to a specific protein20,21. In this study, we present an improvement to the experiment by monitoring the changes in protein stability with small molecules and identifying protein-ligand binding affinities. We use mTOR- rapamycin interaction as an example to demonstrate our approach.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>100X Protease inhibitor cocktail</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8340</td>
			<td>Dilute to 20X with ultrapure water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>293T cell line</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-3216</td>
			<td>DMEM medium with 10% FBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A6283</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BCA Protein Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>23225</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell scraper</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>179693</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 Staining Solution</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610436</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D2650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GraphPad Prism</td>
			<td>GraphPad Software</td>
			<td>Version 6.0</td>
			<td>statistical analysis and drawing software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H1758</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>Version 1.52</td>
			<td>image processing and analysis software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M-PER Cell Lysis Reagent</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>78501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>R21-040-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pronase</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>PRON-RO</td>
			<td>10 mg/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium fluoride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium orthovanadate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>450243</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyrophosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>221368</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trizma base</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T1503</td>
			<td>adjust to pH 8.0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-glycerophosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G9422</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a semi-quantitative drug affinity responsive target stability (darts) assay for studying rapamycin/mtor interaction

Drug Affinity Responsive Target Stability (DARTS) is a robust method for detection of novel small molecule protein targets. It can be used to verify known small molecule-protein interactions and to find potential protein targets for natural products. Compared with other methods, DARTS uses native, unmodified, small molecules and is simple and easy to operate. In this study, we further enhanced the data analysis capabilities of the DARTS experiment by monitoring the changes in protein stability and estimating the affinity of protein-ligand interactions. The protein-ligand interactions can be plotted into two curves: a proteolytic curve and a dose-dependence curve. We have used the mTOR-rapamycin interaction as an exemplary case for establishment of our protocol. From the proteolytic curve we saw that the proteolysis of mTOR by pronase was inhibited by the presence of rapamycin. The dose-dependency curve allowed us to estimate the binding affinity of rapamycin and mTOR. This method is likely to be a powerful and simple method for accurately identifying novel target proteins and for the optimization of drug target engagement.

The flow chart of the experiment is outlined in Figure 1. The result of Coomassie blue staining is shown in Figure 2. Incubation with the small molecule confers protection against proteolysis. Three bands that appear to be protected by incubation with rapamycin over vehicle control are found. The expected results from proteolytic curve experiment are shown in Figure 3. As a proof-of-principle, we examined the well-studied protein mT...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Semi-Quantitative Drug Affinity Responsive Target Stability DARTS assay for studying Rapamycin/mTOR interaction at JoVE.com

A Semi-Quantitative Drug Affinity Responsive Target Stability DARTS assay for studying Rapamycin/mTOR interaction

In this study, we enhanced the data analysis capabilities of the DARTS experiment by monitoring the changes in protein stability and estimating the affinity of protein-ligand interactions. The interactions can be plotted into two curves: a proteolytic curve and a dose-dependence curve. We have used mTOR-rapamycin interaction as an exemplary case.

A Semi-Quantitative Drug Affinity Responsive Target Stability (DARTS) assay for studying Rapamycin/mTOR interaction

Drug Affinity Responsive Target Stability (DARTS) is a robust method for detection of novel small molecule protein targets. It can be used to verify known ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

15.9K Views.  New York University Medical Center. In this study, we enhanced the data analysis capabilities of the DARTS experiment by monitoring the changes in protein stability and estimating the affinity of protein-ligand interactions. The interactions can be plotted into two curves: a proteolytic curve and a dose-dependence curve. We have used mTOR-rapamycin interaction as an exemplary case.

Video: A Semi-Quantitative Drug Affinity Responsive Target Stability DARTS assay for studying Rapamycin/mTOR interaction

Method for Identifying Small Molecule Inhibitors of the Protein-protein Interaction Between HCN1 and TRIP8b

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the excitability of neurons. The subcellular distribution of these channels in pyramidal neurons of hippocampal area CA1 is regulated by tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b interacting protein (TRIP8b), an auxiliary subunit. Genetic knockout of HCN pore forming subunits or TRIP8b, both lead to an increase in antidepressant-like behavior, suggesting that limiting the function of HCN channels may be useful as a treatment for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Despite significant therapeutic interest, HCN channels are also expressed in the heart, where they regulate rhythmicity. To circumvent off-target issues associated with blocking cardiac HCN channels, our lab has recently proposed targeting the protein-protein interaction between HCN and TRIP8b in order to specifically disrupt HCN channel function in the brain. TRIP8b binds to HCN pore forming subunits at two distinct interaction sites, although here the focus is on the interaction between the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domains of TRIP8b and the C terminal tail of HCN1. In this protocol, an expanded description of a method for purifying TRIP8b and executing a high throughput screen to identify small molecule inhibitors of the interaction between HCN and TRIP8b, is described. The method for high throughput screening utilizes a Fluorescence Polarization (FP) -based assay to monitor the binding of a large TRIP8b fragment to a fluorophore-tagged eleven amino acid peptide corresponding to the HCN1 C terminal tail. This method allows &#39;hit&#39; compounds to be identified based on the change in the polarization of emitted light. Validation assays are then performed to ensure that &#39;hit&#39; compounds are not artifactual.

The interaction between HCN channels and their auxiliary subunit has been identified as a therapeutic target in Major Depressive Disorder. Here, a fluorescence polarization-based method for identifying small molecule inhibitors of this protein-protein interaction, is presented.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the ...

Differential Scanning Calorimetry &#8212; A Method for Assessing the Thermal Stability and Conformation of Protein Antigen

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is an analytical technique that measures the molar heat capacity of samples as a function of temperature. In the case of protein samples, DSC profiles provide information about thermal stability, and to some extent serves as a structural &#8220;fingerprint&#8221; that can be used to assess structural conformation. It is performed using a differential scanning calorimeter that measures the thermal transition temperature (melting temperature; Tm) and the energy required to disrupt the interactions stabilizing the tertiary structure (enthalpy; &#8710;H) of proteins. Comparisons are made between formulations as well as production lots, and differences in derived values indicate differences in thermal stability and structural conformation. Data illustrating the use of DSC in an industrial setting for stability studies as well as monitoring key manufacturing steps are provided as proof of the effectiveness of this protocol. In comparison to other methods for assessing the thermal stability of protein conformations, DSC is cost-effective, requires few sample preparation steps, and also provides a complete thermodynamic profile of the protein unfolding process.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry &amp;#8212; A Method for Assessing the Thermal Stability and Conformation of Protein Antigen

Differential scanning calorimetry measures the thermal transition temperature(s) and total heat energy required to denature a protein. Results obtained are used to assess the thermal stability of protein antigens in vaccine formulations.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is an analytical technique that measures the molar heat capacity of samples as a function of temperature. In the ...

A G-quadruplex DNA-affinity Approach for Purification of Enzymatically Active G4 Resolvase1

Higher-order nucleic acid structures called G-quadruplexes (G4s, G4 structures) can form in guanine-rich regions of both DNA and RNA and are highly thermally stable. There are &#62;375,000 putative G4-forming sequences in the human genome, and they are enriched in promoter regions, untranslated regions (UTRs), and within the telomeric repeat. Due to the potential for these structures to affect cellular processes, such as replication and transcription, the cell has evolved enzymes to manage them. One such enzyme is G4 Resolvase 1 (G4R1), which was biochemically co-characterized by our laboratory and Nagamine et al. and found to bind extremely tightly to both G4-DNA and G4-RNA (Kd in the low-pM range). G4R1 is the source of the majority of G4-resolving activity in HeLa cell lysates and has since been implicated to play a role in telomere metabolism, lymph development, gene transcription, hematopoiesis, and immune surveillance. The ability to efficiently express and purify catalytically active G4R1 is of importance for laboratories interested in gaining further insight into the kinetic interaction of G4 structures and G4-resolving enzymes. Here, we describe a detailed method for the purification of recombinant G4R1 (rG4R1). The described procedure incorporates the traditional affinity-based purification of a C-terminal histidine-tagged enzyme expressed in human codon-optimized bacteria with the utilization of the ability of rG4R1 to bind and unwind G4-DNA to purify highly active enzyme in an ATP-dependent elution step. The protocol also includes a quality-control step where the enzymatic activity of rG4R1 is measured by examining the ability of the purified enzyme to unwind G4-DNA. A method is also described that allows for the quantification of purified rG4R1. Alternative adaptations of this protocol are discussed.

G4 Resolvase1 binds to G-quadruplex (G4) structures with the tightest reported affinity for a G4-binding protein and represents the majority of the G4-DNA unwinding activity in HeLa cells. We describe a novel protocol that harnesses the affinity and ATP-dependent unwinding activity of G4-Resolvase1 to specifically purify catalytically active recombinant G4R1.

Higher-order nucleic acid structures called G-quadruplexes (G4s, G4 structures) can form in guanine-rich regions of both DNA and RNA and are highly ...

A Simple, Robust, and High Throughput Single Molecule Flow Stretching Assay Implementation for Studying Transport of Molecules Along DNA

We describe a simple, robust and high throughput single molecule flow-stretching assay for studying 1D diffusion of molecules along DNA. In this assay, glass coverslips are functionalized in a one-step reaction with silane-PEG-biotin. Flow cells are constructed by sandwiching an adhesive tape with pre-cut channels between a functionalized coverslip and a PDMS slab containing inlet and outlet holes. Multiple channels are integrated into one flow cell and the flow of reagents into each channel can be fully automated, which significantly increases the assay throughput and reduces hands-on time per assay. Inside each channel, biotin-&#955;-DNAs are immobilized on the surface and a laminar flow is applied to flow-stretch the DNAs. The DNA molecules are stretched to &#62;80% of their contour length and serve as spatially extended templates for studying the binding and transport activity of fluorescently labeled molecules. The trajectories of single molecules are tracked by time-lapse Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) imaging. Raw images are analyzed using streamlined custom single particle tracking software to automatically identify trajectories of single molecules diffusing along DNA and estimate their 1D diffusion constants.

This protocol demonstrates a simple, robust and high throughput single molecule flow-stretching assay for studying one-dimensional (1D) diffusion of molecules along DNA.

We describe a simple, robust and high throughput single molecule flow-stretching assay for studying 1D diffusion of molecules along DNA. In this assay, ...

Semi-automated Biopanning of Bacterial Display Libraries for Peptide Affinity Reagent Discovery and Analysis of Resulting Isolates

Biopanning bacterial display libraries is a proven technique for peptide affinity reagent discovery for recognition of both biotic and abiotic targets. Peptide affinity reagents can be used for similar applications to antibodies, including sensing and therapeutics, but are more robust and able to perform in more extreme environments. Specific enrichment of peptide capture agents to a protein target of interest is enhanced using semi-automated sorting methods which improve binding and wash steps and therefore decrease the occurrence of false positive binders. A semi-automated sorting method is described herein for use with a commercial automated magnetic-activated cell sorting device with an unconstrained bacterial display sorting library expressing random 15-mer peptides. With slight modifications, these methods are extendable to other automated devices, other sorting libraries, and other organisms. A primary goal of this work is to provide a comprehensive methodology and expound the thought process applied in analyzing and minimizing the resulting pool of candidates. These techniques include analysis of on-cell binding using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), to assess affinity and specificity during sorting and in comparing individual candidates, and the analysis of peptide sequences to identify trends and consensus sequences for understanding and potentially improving the affinity to and specificity for the target of interest.

Biopanning bacterial display libraries is a proven technique for discovery of peptide affinity reagents, a robust alternative to antibodies. The semi-automated sorting method herein has streamlined biopanning to decrease the occurrence of false positives. Here we illustrate the thought process and techniques applied in evaluating candidates and minimizing downstream analysis.

Biopanning bacterial display libraries is a proven technique for peptide affinity reagent discovery for recognition of both biotic and abiotic targets. ...

A Modified Yeast-one Hybrid System for Heteromeric Protein Complex-DNA Interaction Studies

Over the years, the yeast one-hybrid assay has proven to be an important technique for the identification and validation of physical interactions between proteins such as transcription factors (TFs) and their DNA target. The method presented here utilizes the underlying concept of the Y1H but is modified further to study and validate protein complexes binding to their target DNA. Hence, it is referred to as the modified yeast one-hybrid (Y1.5H) assay. This assay is cost effective and can be easily performed in a regular laboratory setting. Albeit using a heterologous system, the described method could be a valuable tool to test and validate the heteromeric protein complex binding to their DNA target(s) for functional genomics in any system of study, especially plant genomics.

The modified yeast one-hybrid assay described here is an extension of the classical yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) assay to study and validate the heteromeric protein complex-DNA interaction in a heterologous system for any functional genomics study.

Over the years, the yeast one-hybrid assay has proven to be an important technique for the identification and validation of physical interactions between ...

Benchtop Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography, Reconstitution and Assay of a Polyhistidine Tagged Metalloenzyme for the Undergraduate Laboratory

Benchtop immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC), of polyhistidine tagged proteins is easily mastered by undergraduate students and has become the most widely used protein purification method in the modern literature. But, the application of affinity chromatography to metal binding proteins, especially those with redox sensitive metals such as iron, is often limited to laboratories with access to a glove box - equipment that is not routinely available in the undergraduate laboratory. In this article, we demonstrate our benchtop methods for isolation, IMAC purification and metal-ion reconstitution of a poly-histidine tagged, redox-active, non-heme iron binding extradiol dioxygenase and the assay of the dioxygenase with varied substrate concentrations and saturating oxygen. These methods are executed by undergraduate students and implemented in the undergraduate teaching and research laboratory with instrumentation that is accessible and affordable at primarily undergraduate institutions.

Here we present a protocol for the benchtop immobilized metal affinity chromatography purification and subsequent reconstitution of a polyhistidine tagged, non-heme iron binding dioxygenase suitable for the undergraduate teaching laboratory.

Benchtop immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC), of polyhistidine tagged proteins is easily mastered by undergraduate students and has become ...

Native Cell Membrane Nanoparticles System for Membrane Protein-Protein Interaction Analysis

Protein-protein interactions in cell membrane systems play crucial roles in a wide range of biological processes- from cell-to-cell interactions to signal transduction; from sensing environmental signals to biological response; from metabolic regulation to developmental control. Accurate structural information of protein-protein interactions is crucial for understanding the molecular mechanisms of membrane protein complexes and for the design of highly specific molecules to modulate these proteins. Many in vivo and in vitro approaches have been developed for the detection and analysis of protein-protein interactions. Among them the structural biology approach is unique in that it can provide direct structural information of protein-protein interactions at the atomic level. However, current membrane protein structural biology is still largely limited to detergent-based methods. The major drawback of detergent-based methods is that they often dissociate or denature membrane protein complexes once their native lipid bilayer environment is removed by detergent molecules. We have been developing a&#160;native cell membrane nanoparticle system for membrane protein structural biology. Here, we demonstrate the use of this system in the analysis of protein-protein interactions on the cell membrane with a case study of the oligomeric state of AcrB.

Presented here is a protocol for the determination of oligomeric state of membrane proteins that utilizes a native cell membrane nanoparticle system in conjunction with electron microscopy.

Protein-protein interactions in cell membrane systems play crucial roles in a wide range of biological processes- from cell-to-cell interactions to signal ...

Semi-Quantitative Analysis of Peptidoglycan by Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry and Bioinformatics

Peptidoglycan is an important component of bacterial cell walls and a common cellular target for antimicrobials. Although aspects of peptidoglycan structure are fairly conserved across all bacteria, there is also considerable variation between Gram-positives/negatives and between species. In addition, there are numerous known variations, modifications, or adaptations to the peptidoglycan that can occur within a bacterial species in response to growth phase and/or environmental stimuli. These variations produce a highly dynamic structure that is known to participate in many cellular functions, including growth/division, antibiotic resistance, and host defense avoidance. To understand the variation within peptidoglycan, the overall structure must be broken down into its constitutive parts (known as muropeptides) and assessed for overall cellular composition. Peptidoglycomics uses advanced mass spectrometry combined with high-powered bioinformatic data analysis to examine peptidoglycan composition in fine detail. The following protocol describes the purification of peptidoglycan from bacterial cultures, the acquisition of muropeptide intensity data through a liquid chromatograph&#8212;mass spectrometer, and the differential analysis of peptidoglycan composition using bioinformatics.

This protocol covers a detailed analysis of peptidoglycan composition using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry coupled with advanced feature extraction and bioinformatic analysis software.

Peptidoglycan is an important component of bacterial cell walls and a common cellular target for antimicrobials. Although aspects of peptidoglycan ...

Fixed Target Serial Data Collection at Diamond Light Source

Serial data collection is a relatively new technique for synchrotron users. A user manual for fixed target data collection at I24, Diamond Light Source is presented with detailed step-by-step instructions, figures, and videos for smooth data collection.

We present a comprehensive guide to fixed target sample preparation, data collection, and data processing for serial synchrotron crystallography at Diamond beamline I24.

Serial data collection is a relatively new technique for synchrotron users. A user manual for fixed target data collection at I24, Diamond Light Source is ...