Name: utilization of microscale silicon cantilevers to assess cellular contractile function in vitro
Uploaded: 2014-10-03T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Utilization of Microscale Silicon Cantilevers to Assess Cellular Contractile Function In Vitro at JoVE.com

This research was funded by National Institute of Health grant numbers R01NS050452 and R01EB009429. Fabrication of the cantilever chips was performed externally by collaborators at the NanoFabrication Facility located at Cornell University. All equipment used in the cantilever fabrication process was located in this facility. Special thanks to Mandy Esch and Jean-Matthieu Prot for their assistance with cantilever micro-fabrication. Video animation of cantilever functionality was generated by Charles Hughes, Alex Zelenin and Eric Imperiale from the Synthetic Reality Lab at UCF.

1. Cantilever Chip Fabrication
Illustrated details of the described fabrication steps are provided in Figure 1.
<ol>
	<li>Place Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) wafers in an oven and bake at 125 &#176;C for 20 min&#160;to dehydrate them.</li>
	<li>Deposit a 1.5 &#181;m thick layer of silicon oxide onto the handle layer of the dehydrated SOI wafer using a Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) tool.</li>
	<li>Place the wafer on the spin coater chuck with the device layer...

<ol>
	<li>Bischoff, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzymatic+liberation+of+myogenic+cells+from+adult+rat+muscle.">Enzymatic liberation of myogenic cells from adult rat muscle.</a> Anat. Rec. 180, 645-661 (1974).</li><li>Yasin, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+quantitative+technique+for+growing+human+adult+skeletal+muscle+in+culture+starting+from+mononucleated+cells.">A quantitative technique for growing human adult skeletal muscle in culture starting from mononucleated cells.</a> J. Neurol. Sci. 32, 347-360 (1977).</li><li>Dennis, R. G., Kosnik, P. E., 2nd, <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Excitability+and+isometric+contractile+properties+of+mammalian+skeletal+muscle+constructs+engineered+in+vitro.">Excitability and isometric contractile properties of mammalian skeletal muscle constructs engineered in vitro.</a> In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. Anim. 36, 327-335 (2000).</li><li>Khodabukus, A., Baar, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Defined+electrical+stimulation+emphasizing+excitability+for+the+development+and+testing+of+engineered+skeletal+muscle.">Defined electrical stimulation emphasizing excitability for the development and testing of engineered skeletal muscle.</a> Tissue Eng Part C Methods. 18, 349-357 (2012).</li><li>Langelaan, M. L. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advanced+maturation+by+electrical+stimulation:+Differences+in+response+between+C2C12+and+primary+muscle+progenitor+cells.">Advanced maturation by electrical stimulation: Differences in response between C2C12 and primary muscle progenitor cells.</a> Journal of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. 5, 529-539 (2011).</li><li>Stephenson, G. M., O'Callaghan, A., Stephenson, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-fiber+study+of+contractile+and+biochemical+properties+of+skeletal+muscles+in+streptozotocin-induced+diabetic+rats.">Single-fiber study of contractile and biochemical properties of skeletal muscles in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.</a> Diabetes. 43, 622-628 (1994).</li><li>Harber, M., Trappe, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single+muscle+fiber+contractile+properties+of+young+competitive+distance+runners.">Single muscle fiber contractile properties of young competitive distance runners.</a> Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md: 1985). 105, 629-636 (2008).</li><li>Hvid, L. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Four+days+of+muscle+disuse+impairs+single+fiber+contractile+function+in+young+and+old+healthy+men.">Four days of muscle disuse impairs single fiber contractile function in young and old healthy men.</a> Experimental gerontology. 48, 154-161 (2013).</li><li>Edman, K. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contractile+performance+of+striated+muscle.">Contractile performance of striated muscle.</a> Advances in experimental medicine and biology. 682, 7-40 (2010).</li><li>Krivickas, L. S., Walsh, R., Amato, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single+muscle+fiber+contractile+properties+in+adults+with+muscular+dystrophy+treated+with+MYO-029.">Single muscle fiber contractile properties in adults with muscular dystrophy treated with MYO-029.</a> Muscle Nerve. 39, 3-9 (2009).</li><li>Sung, J. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfabricated+mammalian+organ+systems+and+their+integration+into+models+of+whole+animals+and+humans.">Microfabricated mammalian organ systems and their integration into models of whole animals and humans.</a> Lab on a chip. 13, 1201-1212 (2013).</li><li>Wilson, K., Molnar, P., Hickman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integration+of+functional+myotubes+with+a+Bio-MEMS+device+for+non-invasive+interrogation.">Integration of functional myotubes with a Bio-MEMS device for non-invasive interrogation.</a> Lab on a chip. 7, 920-922 (2007).</li><li>Wilson, K., Das, M., Wahl, K. J., Colton, R. J., Hickman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+contractile+stress+generated+by+cultured+rat+muscle+on+silicon+cantilevers+for+toxin+detection+and+muscle+performance+enhancement.">Measurement of contractile stress generated by cultured rat muscle on silicon cantilevers for toxin detection and muscle performance enhancement.</a> PLoS ONE. 5, (2010).</li><li>Binnig, G., Quate, C. F., Gerber, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic+Force+Microscope.">Atomic Force Microscope.</a> Physical Review Letters. 56, 930-933 (1986).</li><li>Pirozzi, K. L., Long, C. J., McAleer, C. W., Smith, A. S., Hickman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Correlation+of+embryonic+skeletal+muscle+myotube+physical+characteristics+with+contractile+force+generation+on+an+atomic+force+microscope-based+bio-microelectromechanical+systems+device.">Correlation of embryonic skeletal muscle myotube physical characteristics with contractile force generation on an atomic force microscope-based bio-microelectromechanical systems device.</a> Applied physics letters. 103, 83108 (2013).</li><li>Smith, A., Long, C., Pirozzi, K., Hickman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+functional+system+for+high-content+screening+of+neuromuscular+junctions+in+vitro.">A functional system for high-content screening of neuromuscular junctions in vitro.</a> Technology. 1, 37-48 (2013).</li><li>Stenger, D. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coplanar+molecular+assemblies+of+amino-+and+perfluorinated+alkylsilanes:+characterization+and+geometric+definition+of+mammalian+cell+adhesion+and+growth.">Coplanar molecular assemblies of amino- and perfluorinated alkylsilanes: characterization and geometric definition of mammalian cell adhesion and growth.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 114, 8435-8442 (1992).</li><li>Das, M., Rumsey, J. W., Bhargava, N., Stancescu, M., Hickman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+defined+long-term+in+vitro+tissue+engineered+model+of+neuromuscular+junctions.">A defined long-term in vitro tissue engineered model of neuromuscular junctions.</a> Biomaterials. 31, 4880-4888 (2010).</li><li>Rumsey, J. W., Das, M., Bhalkikar, A., Stancescu, M., Hickman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+engineering+the+mechanosensory+circuit+of+the+stretch+reflex+arc:+Sensory+neuron+innervation+of+intrafusal+muscle+fibers.">Tissue engineering the mechanosensory circuit of the stretch reflex arc: Sensory neuron innervation of intrafusal muscle fibers.</a> Biomaterials. 31, 8218-8227 (2010).</li><li>Das, M., Rumsey, J. W., Bhargava, N., Stancescu, M., Hickman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Skeletal+muscle+tissue+engineering:+A+maturation+model+promoting+long-term+survival+of+myotubes,+structural+development+of+the+excitation-contraction+coupling+apparatus+and+neonatal+myosin+heavy+chain+expression.">Skeletal muscle tissue engineering: A maturation model promoting long-term survival of myotubes, structural development of the excitation-contraction coupling apparatus and neonatal myosin heavy chain expression.</a> Biomaterials. 30, 5392-5402 (2009).</li><li>Das, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developing+a+novel+serum-free+cell+culture+model+of+skeletal+muscle+differentiation+by+systematically+studying+the+role+of+different+growth+factors+in+myotube+formation.">Developing a novel serum-free cell culture model of skeletal muscle differentiation by systematically studying the role of different growth factors in myotube formation.</a> In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim. 45, 378-387 (2009).</li><li>Stenger, D. A., Pike, C. J., Hickman, J. J., Cotman, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surface+determinants+of+neuronal+survival+and+growth+on+self-assembled+monolayers+in+culture.">Surface determinants of neuronal survival and growth on self-assembled monolayers in culture.</a> Brain research. 630, 136-147 (1993).</li><li>Hickman, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rational+pattern+design+for+in+vitro+cellular+networks+using+surface+photochemistry.">Rational pattern design for in vitro cellular networks using surface photochemistry.</a> Journal of Vacuum Scienc., &amp; Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films. 12, 607-616 (1994).</li><li>Das, M., Molnar, P., Devaraj, H., Poeta, M., Hickman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+and+morphological+characterization+of+rat+embryonic+motor+neurons+in+a+defined+system.">Electrophysiological and morphological characterization of rat embryonic motor neurons in a defined system.</a> Biotechnology progress. 19, 1756-1761 (2003).</li><li>Rumsey, J. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Node+of+Ranvier+formation+on+motor+neurons+in+vitro.">Node of Ranvier formation on motor neurons in vitro.</a> Biomaterials. 30, 3567-3572 (2009).</li><li>Murugan, R., Molnar, P., Rao, K. P., Hickman, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomaterial+Surface+patterning+of+self+assembled+monolayers+for+controlling+neuronal+cell+behavior.">Biomaterial Surface patterning of self assembled monolayers for controlling neuronal cell behavior.</a> International journal of biomedical engineering and technology. 2, 104-134 (2009).</li><li>Guo, X., Johe, K., Molnar, P., Davis, H., Hickman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+a+human+fetal+spinal+cord+stem+cell+line,+NSI-566RSC,+and+its+induction+to+functional+motoneurons.">Characterization of a human fetal spinal cord stem cell line, NSI-566RSC, and its induction to functional motoneurons.</a> Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. 4, 181-193 (2010).</li><li>Varghese, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+target+for+amyloid+beta+toxicity+validated+by+standard+and+high-throughput+electrophysiology.">A new target for amyloid beta toxicity validated by standard and high-throughput electrophysiology.</a> PLoS ONE. 5, e8643 (2010).</li><li>Natarajan, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patterned+cardiomyocytes+on+microelectrode+arrays+as+a+functional,+high+information+content+drug+screening+platform.">Patterned cardiomyocytes on microelectrode arrays as a functional, high information content drug screening platform.</a> Biomaterials. 32, 4267-4274 (2011).</li><li>Davis, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rat+Cortical+Oligodendrocyte-Embryonic+Motoneuron+Co-Culture:+An+Axon-Oligodendrocyte+Interaction+Model.">Rat Cortical Oligodendrocyte-Embryonic Motoneuron Co-Culture: An Axon-Oligodendrocyte Interaction Model.</a> Journal of biomaterials and tissue. 2, 206-214 (2012).</li><li>Natarajan, A., DeMarse, T., Molnar, P., Hickman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engineered+In+Vitro+Feed-Forward+Networks.">Engineered In Vitro Feed-Forward Networks.</a> J Biotechnol Biomater. 3, 2 (2013).</li></ol>

The critical steps in analyzing microscale cantilevers for evidence of cellular contraction are the placement of the cantilever chip within the microscope stage, and the subsequent alignment of the laser and photo-detector with the tip of the corner cantilevers in the array. If this is not done accurately, then the software will be unable to extrapolate the positions of the remaining cantilevers in the array, potentially leading to accumulation of false negatives during data collection. Operators should take care to ensu...

The in vitro culture of muscle cells from both human and rodent sources has been possible for decades1,2. However, while standard coverslip preparations are useful for biochemical assessment, they do not facilitate analysis of the cell&#8217;s primary functional output (contractility), and therefore are of somewhat limited value as a means to assess cellular maturation and performance. In order to maximize the amount of data obtainable from such in vitro cultures, it is necessary to advance the development of systems capable of housing such cells in configurations that permit the real-time assessment of their functional performance. The establishment of a multitude of three dimensional muscle models has made some progress toward fulfilling this need, and such systems have been used in a number of publications as a means to assess the contractile capacity of cultured muscle cells in vitro3-5. While such systems are invaluable for tissue modeling and reconstruction studies, they are limited in their applicability for studies of single cell responses. In such cases where single fiber studies are necessary, complex and labor intensive ex vivo methodologies remain the only option6-10. Furthermore, current movement toward the development of complex, multi-organ platforms for drug development and screening protocols requires the establishment of systems which are non-invasive, easily scalable and which integrate readily with supporting cells and tissue models11. 
Microscale cantilevers offer a simple method for assessing the functional contractile capacity of single cells/small populations of cells12,13. The technique is based on modified Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) technology14, and uses a laser and photo-detector system to measure microscale cantilever deflection in response to cultured myotube contractile activity. Modified Stoney&#8217;s equations are then used to calculate stress in the myotube, and the force exerted by the myotube in order to generate the observed substrate deflection15. A scanning program has been written which enables simultaneous assessment of multiplexed cantilever arrays, offering potential moderate to high through-put applications for drug toxicity/efficacy studies15,16. Such technology may prove invaluable in the development of functional, pre-clinical assays for predicting drug efficacy in vivo. Furthermore, fabrication of cantilever chips in silicon does not impede post analysis processing of cells for standard biomolecular assays such as immunostaining, western blotting and PCR. 
This manuscript provides detailed instructions on the fabrication and preparation of microscale silicon cantilevers, the hardware and software set-up, and the operating guidelines for assessing the functionality of contractile cells cultured on these chips. Standard cell culture techniques can be implemented for plating and maintenance of cells on these surfaces, hence any contractile cell type for which reliable culture parameters exist should be able to integrate with this device with ease. The relatively simple 2D culture parameters utilized in this system makes integration of other cell models or addition of cell types that can interact with muscle (such as innervating neurons) straight-forward, greatly increasing the applicability of this model in the development of more complex functional in vitro assays and multi-organ models of mammalian systems.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="690">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Name of material/ equipment</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">Catalog number</td>
			<td style="width:156px;">Comments/ Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Primary rat muscle growth medium</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Neurobasal medium</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">21103-049&#160;</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">B27 (50x)</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">17504044</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">1x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Glutamax (100x)</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">35050061</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">1x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">G5 supplement</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">17503-012&#160;</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">1x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Glial-Derived Neurotrophic Factor</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Cell sciences</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">CRG400B</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">20 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Cell sciences</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">CRB600B</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">20 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Cell sciences</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">CRC400A</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">40 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Neurotrophin-3</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Cell sciences</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">CRN500B</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">20 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Neurotrophin-4</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Cell sciences</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">CRN501B</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">20 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Acidic Fibroblast Growth Factor</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">13241-013&#160;</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">25 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">P2654</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">20 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Cardiotrophin-1</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Cell sciences</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">CRC700B</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">20 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Heparin Sulphate</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">D9809&#160;</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">100 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Leukemia Inhibitory Factor</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">L5158&#160;</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">20 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">Vitronectin</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Sigma</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">V0132</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">100 ng/ ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Primary rat muscle differentiation medium</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;">NB Activ 4</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;">Brain Bits LLC</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;">NB4-500</td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;">N/A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td dir="LTR" height="17" style="height:17px;width:299px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:128px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td dir="LTR" style="width:156px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Class 2 red diode laser</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Photo-detector</td>
			<td>Noah Industries</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Model 2100 Pulse stimulator</td>
			<td>A-M systems</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Multiclamp 700B Digitizer</td>
			<td>Axon Instruments</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Patch clamp microscope and stage</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Delta T4 culture dish controller</td>
			<td>Bioptechs</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Axoscope software</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">LabVIEW software</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">37oC, 5% CO2 incubator</td>
			<td>NAPCO</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Class 2 microbiological flow hood</td>
			<td>Labconco</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Pipettes and tips</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

utilization of microscale silicon cantilevers to assess cellular contractile function in vitro

The development of more predictive and biologically relevant in vitro assays is predicated on the advancement of versatile cell culture systems which facilitate the functional assessment of the seeded cells. To that end, microscale cantilever technology offers a platform with which to measure the contractile functionality of a range of cell types, including skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle cells, through assessment of contraction induced substrate bending. Application of multiplexed cantilever arrays provides the means to develop moderate to high-throughput protocols for assessing drug efficacy and toxicity, disease phenotype and progression, as well as neuromuscular and other cell-cell interactions. This manuscript provides the details for fabricating reliable cantilever arrays for this purpose, and the methods required to successfully culture cells on these surfaces. Further description is provided on the steps necessary to perform functional analysis of contractile cell types maintained on such arrays using a novel laser and photo-detector system. The representative data provided highlights the precision and reproducible nature of the analysis of contractile function possible using this system, as well as the wide range of studies to which such technology can be applied. Successful widespread adoption of this system could provide investigators with the means to perform rapid, low cost functional studies in vitro, leading to more accurate predictions of tissue performance, disease development and response to novel therapeutic treatment.

Successful culture of contractile cells on cantilevers is a relatively straightforward procedure, utilizing standard cell culture techniques (Figure 5). The percentage of cantilevers supporting contracting cells will vary depending on cell type being examined and specific culture technique employed. Using primary embryonic cells derived from rat hind limbs, contractile activity was detected on 12% of cantilevers examined (n = 4). Analysis of contractile function using the laser and photo-detector system ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Utilization of Microscale Silicon Cantilevers to Assess Cellular Contractile Function In Vitro at JoVE.com

Utilization of Microscale Silicon Cantilevers to Assess Cellular Contractile Function In Vitro

This protocol describes the use of microscale silicon cantilevers as pliable culture surfaces for measuring the contractility of muscle cells in vitro. Cellular contraction causes cantilever bending, which can be measured, recorded, and converted into readouts of force, providing a non-invasive and scalable system for measuring contractile function in vitro.

Utilization of Microscale Silicon Cantilevers to Assess Cellular Contractile Function In Vitro

The development of more predictive and biologically relevant in vitro assays is predicated on the advancement of versatile cell culture systems which ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Utilization of Plasmonic and Photonic Crystal Nanostructures for Enhanced Micro- and Nanoparticle Manipulation

A method to manipulate the position and orientation of submicron particles nondestructively would be an incredibly useful tool for basic biological ...

In vitro Assembly of Semi-artificial Molecular Machine and its Use for Detection of DNA Damage

In vitro Assembly of Semi-artificial Molecular Machine and its Use for Detection of DNA Damage

Naturally occurring bio-molecular machines work in every living cell and display a variety of designs 1-6. Yet the development of artificial molecular ...

Quantification of Global Diastolic Function by Kinematic Modeling-based Analysis of Transmitral Flow via the Parametrized Diastolic Filling Formalism

Quantitative cardiac function assessment remains a challenge for physiologists and clinicians.&#160;Although historically invasive methods have comprised ...

Analyzing Mixing Inhomogeneity in a Microfluidic Device by Microscale Schlieren Technique

In this paper, we introduce the use of microscale schlieren technique to measure mixing inhomogeneity in a microfluidic device. The microscale schlieren ...

Eye Irritation Test (EIT) for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial (RhCE) Tissue Model

Eye Irritation Test EIT for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial RhCE Tissue Model

To comply with the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive and EU REACH legislation, validated non-animal alternative methods for reliable and ...

Techniques for the Evolution of Robust Pentose-fermenting Yeast for Bioconversion of Lignocellulose to Ethanol

Lignocellulosic biomass is an abundant, renewable feedstock useful for production of fuel-grade ethanol and other bio-products. Pretreatment and enzyme ...

Measuring and Modeling Contractile Drying in Human Stratum Corneum

Stratum corneum (SC) is the most superficial skin layer. Its contact with the external environment means that this tissue layer is subjected to both ...

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and ...

Advanced 3D Liver Models for In vitro Genotoxicity Testing Following Long-Term Nanomaterial Exposure

Due to the rapid development and implementation of a diverse array of engineered nanomaterials (ENM), exposure to ENM is inevitable and the development of ...