Name: shaping the amplitude and phase of laser beams by using a phase-only spatial light modulator
Uploaded: 2019-01-28T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Shaping the Amplitude and Phase of Laser Beams by Using a Phase-only Spatial Light Modulator at JoVE.com

This research was supported by Generalitat Valenciana (PROMETEO 2016-079), Universitat Jaume I (UJI) (UJIB2016-19); and Ministerio de Econom&#237;a y Competitividad (MINECO) (FIS2016-75618-R). The authors are very grateful to the SCIC of the Universitat Jaume I for the use of the femtosecond laser.

1. Encoding the Complex Field into a Single Phase Element
<ol>
	<li>From the technical specifications of the SLM, find its spatial resolution (for instance 1920 pixels x 1800 pixels).</li>
	<li>Define and generate the desired amplitude A(x,y) and phase &#966;(x,y) patterns as digital images.
	<ol>
		<li>Set the spatial resolution of abovementioned digital images equal to that of the SLM display.</li>
		<li>Set abovementioned digital images in gray level format.</li>...

<ol>
	<li>Hsueh, C. K., Sawchuk, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer-generated+double-phase+holograms.">Computer-generated double-phase holograms.</a> Applied Optics. 17 (24), 3874-3883 (1978).</li><li>Arriz&#243;n, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complex+modulation+with+a+twisted-nematic+liquid-crystal+spatial+light+modulator:+double-pixel+approach.">Complex modulation with a twisted-nematic liquid-crystal spatial light modulator: double-pixel approach.</a> Optics Letters. 28 (15), 1359-1361 (2003).</li><li>Arriz&#243;n, V., Ruiz, U., Carrada, R., Gonz&#225;lez, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pixelated+phase+computer+holograms+for+the+accurate+encoding+of+scalar+complex+fields.">Pixelated phase computer holograms for the accurate encoding of scalar complex fields.</a> Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 24 (11), (2007).</li><li>Shibukawa, A., Okamoto, A., Takabayashi, M., Tomita, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+cross+modulation+method+using+a+random+diffuser+and+phase-only+spatial+light+modulator+for+constructing+arbitrary+complex+fields.">Spatial cross modulation method using a random diffuser and phase-only spatial light modulator for constructing arbitrary complex fields.</a> Optics Express. 22 (4), 3968-3982 (2014).</li><li>Mart&#237;nez-Fuentes, J. L., Moreno, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Random+technique+to+encode+complex+valued+holograms+with+on+axis+reconstruction+onto+phase-only+displays.">Random technique to encode complex valued holograms with on axis reconstruction onto phase-only displays.</a> Optics Express. 26 (5), 5875-5893 (2018).</li><li>Clark, T. W., Offer, R. F., Franke-Arnold, S., Arnold, A. S., Radwell, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+beam+generation+techniques+using+a+phase+only+spatial+light+modulator.">Comparison of beam generation techniques using a phase only spatial light modulator.</a> Optics Express. 24 (6), 6249-6264 (2016).</li><li>Mendoza-Yero, O., M&#237;nguez-Vega, G., Lancis, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Encoding+complex+fields+by+using+a+phase-only+optical+element.">Encoding complex fields by using a phase-only optical element.</a> Optics Letters. 39 (7), 1740-1743 (2014).</li><li>Yamaguchi, I., Zhang, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phase-shifting+digital+holography.">Phase-shifting digital holography.</a> Optics Letters. 22 (16), 1268-1270 (1997).</li><li>Shao, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Addressable+multiregional+and+multifocal+multiphoton+microscopy+based+on+a+spatial+light+modulator.">Addressable multiregional and multifocal multiphoton microscopy based on a spatial light modulator.</a> Journal of Biomedical Optics. 17 (3), 030505 (2012).</li><li>Mendoza-Yero, O., Carbonell-Leal, M., M&#237;nguez-Vega, G., Lancis, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+multifocal+irradiance+patterns+by+using+complex+Fresnel+holograms.">Generation of multifocal irradiance patterns by using complex Fresnel holograms.</a> Optics Letters. 43 (5), 1167-1170 (2018).</li><li>Kuang, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffractive+Multi-beam+Ultra-fast+Laser+Micro-processing+Using+a+Spatial+Light+Modulator+(Invited+Paper).">Diffractive Multi-beam Ultra-fast Laser Micro-processing Using a Spatial Light Modulator (Invited Paper).</a> Chinese Journal of Lasers. 36 (12), 3093-3115 (2009).</li><li>Kuang, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+throughput+diffractive+multi-beam+femtosecond+laser+processing+using+a+spatial+light+modulator.">High throughput diffractive multi-beam femtosecond laser processing using a spatial light modulator.</a> Applied Surface Science. 255, 2284-2289 (2008).</li></ol>

In this protocol, practical parameters as the pixel width of the phase-only SLM or the number of pixels contained within pixel cells of a computer-generated pattern are key points to successfully implement the encoding method. In steps 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4 of the protocol, the shorter the pixel width, the better the spatial resolution of the retrieved amplitude and phase patterns. In addition, as the codification into the SLM of abrupt pixel-to-pixel phase modulations can originate unexpected phase responses (pixel crosstal...

Almost all laser applications are in close relation with the management of the optical wavefront of light. In the paraxial approximation, the complex field associated with the laser radiation can be described by two terms, the amplitude and the phase. Having control over these two terms is necessary to modify both the temporal and the spatial structure of laser beams at will. In general, the amplitude and the phase of a laser beam can be properly changed by several methods including the use of optical components that range from single bulk lenses, beam splitters and mirrors to most complex devices like deformable mirrors or spatial light modulators. Here, we show a method for encoding and reconstructing the complex field of coherent laser beams, which is based on dual-phase hologram theory1, and the utilization of a common-path interferometer.
Nowadays, there exists a wide variety of methods to encode the complex fields of laser beams2,3,4,5. In this context, some well-established methods to produce phase and amplitude modulation rely on the use of digital holograms6. A common point in all these methods is the necessity of generating a spatial offset to separate the desired output beam from the zeroth-order coming from the reflection of light at the SLM display. These methods are basically off-axis (usually applying for the first diffraction order of the grating), employing phase grating not only to encode the phase, but also to introduce necessary amplitude modulation. In particular, amplitude modulation is performed by spatially lowering the grating height, which clearly degrades the diffraction efficiency. The hologram reconstruction process mostly gets an approximate, but not exact, reconstruction of the amplitude and phase of the desired complex field. Discrepancies between theory and experiment seem to appear from an inaccurate encoding of the amplitude information as well as other experimental issues happening during the spatial filtering of the first diffraction order or due to SLM pixilation effects. In addition, the intensity profile of the input beam can introduce restrictions on the output power.
In contrast, with the introduced method7, all light management is carried out on-axis, which is very convenient from an experimental point of view. Additionally, it takes advantage of considering, in the paraxial approximation, the complex field associated with laser beams as a sum of two uniform waves. The amplitude information is synthetized by the interference of these uniform waves. In practice, such interference is carried out by spatial filtering of light frequencies at the Fourier plane of a given imaging system. Previously, the phase patterns associated with the uniform waves are spatially multiplexed and encoded into a phase-only SLM (placed at the entrance plane of this imaging system). Hence, the whole optical setup can be regarded as a common-path interferometer (very robust against mechanical vibrations, temperature changes, or optical misalignments). Please, note that the abovementioned interference process can be alternatively accomplished by using other optical layouts: with a couple of phase-only SLMs properly placed within a typical two-arm interferometer, or by time sequentially encoding the two phase patterns into the SLM (previous introduction of a reference mirror in the optical setup). In both cases, there is no necessity of spatial filtering, and consequently no loss of spatial resolution, at the expense of increasing the complexity of the optical system, as well as the alignment process. Here, it should be also emphasized that by using this encoding method, the full spectrum of the desired complex field can be exactly retrieved at the Fourier plane, after filtering all diffraction orders but the zeroth one.
On the other hand, the efficiency of the method depends on several factors: the manufacturer&#39;s specifications of the SLM (e.g., fill factor, reflectivity, or diffraction efficiency), the size of the encoded pattern, and the way at which the light impinges onto the SLM (reflection with a small hitting angle, or normal incidence by using a beam splitter). At this point, under proper experimental conditions, the measured total light efficiency can be more than 30%. However, note that that the total light efficiency just due to the use of the SLM can be less than 50%. The lack of random or diffuser elements within the optical setup allows the retrieving of amplitude and phase patterns without coherent noise (speckle). Other significant aspects to point out are the utilization of a direct codification algorithm rather than iterative procedures and its ability to perform arbitrary and independent amplitude and phase modulation at the frequency refresh time of the SLM (up to hundreds of hertz according to the current technology).
In principle, the method7 is intended to be used with input plane waves, but it is not limited to that. For instance, if a Gaussian beam is hitting the SLM, it is possible to modify its irradiance shape at the output of the system by encoding a suited amplitude pattern into the SLM. However, as the intensity of the output beam cannot exceed that of the input beam at any transversal position (x,y), the shaping of the amplitude is performed by intensity losses originated by a partially destructive interference process.
The theory underlining the encoding method7 is as follows. Any complex field represented in the form U(x,y)= A(x,y)ei&#966;(x,y) can be also rewritten as:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/59158/59158eq1.jpg" />&#160;(1)
where
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/59158/59158eq2.jpg" />&#160;(2)
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/59158/59158eq3.jpg" />&#160;(3)
In equations 1-3, the amplitude and phase of the two-dimensional complex field U(x,y)is given by A(x,y) and &#966;(x,y), respectively. Note that, terms Amax (maximum of A(x,y)) and B = Amax/2 do not depend on the transversal coordinates (x,y). From the theory, if we set Amax=2, then B =1. Hence, the complex field U(x,y) can be obtained, in a simple manner, from the coherent sum of uniform waves Bei&#977;(x,y) and Bei&#952;(x,y). In practice, this is accomplished with a common-path interferometer made up of a single phase element &#945;(x,y), placed at the input plane of an imaging system. The single phase element is constructed by spatial multiplexing of the phase terms &#977;(x,y)
and &#952;(x,y) with the help of two-dimensional binary gratings (checkerboard patterns) M1(x,y) and M2(x,y) as follows
<img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/59158/59158eq4.jpg" />&#160;(4)
hence,
<img alt="Equation 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/59158/59158eq5.jpg" />&#160;(5)
These binary patterns fulfill the condition M1(x,y) + M2(x,y) = 1. Note that, the interference of uniform waves cannot happen if we do not mix the information contained in the phase element&#945;(x,y). In the present method, this is carried out by using a spatial filter able to block all diffraction orders but the zeroth one. In this way, after the filtering process at the Fourier plane, the spectrum H(u,v)= F{ei&#945;(x,y)} of the encoded phase function is related to the spectrum of the complex field F{U(x,y)} by the expression
<img alt="Equation 6" src="/files/ftp_upload/59158/59158eq6.jpg" />&#160;(6)
In Eq. (6), (u,v) denote coordinates in the frequency domain, P(u,v) holds for the spatial filter, whereas the Fourier transform of a given function &#920;(x,y) is represented in the form F{&#920;(x,y)}. From Eq. (6), it follows that, at the output plane of the imaging system, the retrieved complex field URET(x,y), (without considering constant factors), is given by the convolution of the magnified and spatially reversed complex field U(x,y) with the Fourier transform of the filter mask. That is:
<img alt="Equation 7" src="/files/ftp_upload/59158/59158eq7.jpg" />&#160;(7)
In Eq. (7), the convolution operation is denoted by the symbol <img alt="Equation 10" src="/files/ftp_upload/59052/59052eq10.jpg" />, and the term Mag represents the magnification of the imaging system. Hence, the amplitude and phase of U(x,y) is fully retrieved at the output plane, except for some loss of spatial resolution due to the convolution operation.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1083px;" width="1083">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Achromatic Doublet</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">THORLABS</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">AC254-100-B-ML</td>
			<td style="width:431px;">Lens Diameter 25.4 mm, focal length 100 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Achromatic Galilean Beam Expander</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">THORLABS</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">GBE05-A</td>
			<td>AR Coated: 400 - 650 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Basler camera</td>
			<td>BASLER</td>
			<td>avA1600-50gm GigE camera</td>
			<td>sensor size 8.8 mm x 6.6 mm, pizel size 5.5 microns</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Mounted Zero-Aperture Iris</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">THORLABS</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">ID12Z/M</td>
			<td>Max Aperture 12 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:251px;">Pellicle Beamsplitter</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">THORLABS</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">CM1-BP145B2</td>
			<td>45:55 (R:T), Coating: 700 - 900 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PLUTO Spatial Light Modulator</td>
			<td>HOLOEYE Photonics AG</td>
			<td>NIR-II</td>
			<td>Phase Only Spatial Light Modulator (Optimized for 700 -1000 nm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Two thin film laser polarizers</td>
			<td>EKSMA OPTICS</td>
			<td>420-0526M</td>
			<td>material BK7, diameter 50 mm, wavelength 780-820 nm</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

shaping the amplitude and phase of laser beams by using a phase-only spatial light modulator

The aim of this article is to visually demonstrate the utilization of an interferometric method for encoding complex fields associated with coherent laser radiation. The method is based on the coherent sum of two uniform waves, previously encoded into a phase-only spatial light modulator (SLM) by spatial multiplexing of their phases. Here, the interference process is carried out by spatial filtering of light frequencies at the Fourier plane of certain imaging system. The correct implementation of this method allows arbitrary phase and amplitude information to be retrieved at the output of the optical system.
It is an on-axis, rather than off-axis encoding technique, with a direct processing algorithm (not an iterative loop), and free from coherent noise (speckle). The complex field can be exactly retrieved at the output of the optical system, except for some loss of resolution due to the frequency filtering process. The main limitation of the method might come from the inability to operate at frequency rates higher than the refresh rate of the SLM. Applications include, but are not limited to, linear and non-linear microscopy, beam shaping, or laser micro-processing of material surfaces.

The spatial resolution of the employed phase-only SLM is 1920 pixels x 1080 pixels, with a pixel pitch of 8 &#181;m. The selected amplitude A(x,y) and phase &#966;(x,y) of the complex field are defined by two different gray level images corresponding to the well-known Lenna&#8217;s picture (amplitude pattern) and a young girl sticking out her tongue (phase pattern), respectively. In general, for both, the generation of necessary patter...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Shaping the Amplitude and Phase of Laser Beams by Using a Phase-only Spatial Light Modulator at JoVE.com

Shaping the Amplitude and Phase of Laser Beams by Using a Phase-only Spatial Light Modulator

We show how to encode the complex field of laser beams by using a single phase element. A common-path interferometer is employed to mix the phase information displayed into a phase-only spatial light modulator to finally retrieve the desired complex field pattern at the output of an optical imaging system.

The aim of this article is to visually demonstrate the utilization of an interferometric method for encoding complex fields associated with coherent laser ...

This protocol can be useful to perform beam shaping or spatial echo HALO laser beam by using just a defractic optical element and call it into the phase-only spatial eye modulate. The technique that's created it this protocol gives you a simple but high echo densital, able to spatially modify and micro minusculely, both have better than phase of laser beams, simultaneously. Encode the complex field using a spatial light modulator and computer.Find the light modulator spatial resolution from its technical specifications. Next, move to a computer to define the amplitude and phase patterns. Define the desired amplitude pattern as a digital image in gray level format, with values ranging from 0 to 255.For the desired phase pattern, define it in gray level format with values ranging from negative pi over two to pi over two. With the phase and amplitude defined, computer generate these two different phase patterns, using equations two and three. Note that A max is set to two.Also define two, two dimensional binary gradings with spatial resolution equal to the spatial light modulator display. These appear as checkerboard patterns, shifted by one square vertically or horizontally so that when superposed they produce a uniform pattern with height one. To help reduce the effect of pixel crosstalk, generate other pairs of checkerboard patterns for the binary phase gradings with different pixel cells having an increased number of pixels.The total number of pixels should be the same and equal to the spatial resolution of the spatial light modulator. To construct a single phase element, pair each binary grading with a different phase term. Then spatially multiplex each pair and add the results.This is the phase element for the previously defined phases and gradings with pixel cell size one. Note that changing the pixel cell size does effect the spatial resolution of the final single phase element. This schematic provides an overview of the initial setup for the experiment.Place a spatial light modulator to have its programmable surface face a CCD camera. Have a collimated linear polarized, spatially coherent laser beam go to a beam splitter that redirects the beam to the spatial light modulator. Light from the spatial light modulator passes through the beam splitter into a 44F optical image system.Place the CCD at the output plane of the imaging system. This is the setup as it appears on the bench. The laser beam passes through a beam expander to adjust its size.Two mirrors direct the output beam to the beam splitter. Here is the beam splitter in front of the spatial light modulator. Two lenses focus light from the spatial light modulator onto a CCD camera.When setting up the optical system, send the computer generated phase pattern with the lowest pixel cell to the light modulator. Image the phase pattern with the CCD camera placed at several different positions along the optical axis. Identify the output plane by as the position with the best resolution.Secure the camera at the position associated with the best resolution. Next place a circular iris at the focal plane of the first lens in the optical path, centered with the laser beam. Again, use the CCD camera to image the phase pattern from the spatial light modulator while varying the iris aperture.Adjust the iris aperture to the position that has the best spatial resolution. Next, perform similar steps in order to minimize crosstalk. Experiment with different pixel cell sizes in the phase element on the spatial light modulator.For each, select the aperture size that gives the highest resolution image on the CCD camera. To minimize crosstalk, choose the pixel cell size and iris aperture that allows the highest spatial resolution. For measurements use the polarization-based phase shifting technique.Place an optical polarizer just before the spatial light modulator. Image the phase element on the camera, and set the polarizer's rotation angle, by visualizing search for the angles corresponding to the sharpest and most blurred images in the CCD camera. Fix the polarizer between the two angles.Next, place the second polarizer after the back plane of the imagining system before the camera. Set its rotation angle by searching for the angles corresponding to the sharpest and most blurred images in the CCD camera. Fix the polarizer angle between these two angles.Now, record interferograms while maintaining the camera at the output plane. At a matrix of zero radians to the phase element and send it to the spatial light modulator. Record the corresponding image with the CCD.For the second interferogram, add a matrix of pi over two radians to the phase element and send it to the spatial light modulator. Record its image with the CCD camera. Add a matrix of pi radians to the phase element and send it to the spatial light modulator to record its interferogram with the CCD camera.Finally, add a matrix of three pi over two radians to the phase element. Use it in the spatial light modulator to record the fourth interferogram with the camera. Once the interferograms are recorded, transfer the data to a computer.Here, each of the interferograms is labeled by the order in which was recorded. From the one involving the zero matrix to the three pi over two matrix. This is the retrieved amplitude of the complex field.To find it, implement this expression, which makes use of the interferogram data. To retrieve the phase of the complex field, implement the remaining code to evaluate this expression with the interferogram data. This image defines the amplitude of the complex field for an experiment.This image defines its phase. The phase shifting technique requires measuring interferograms using phases shifted by zero, pi over two, pi, and three pi over two radians. These interferograms allow the retrieval of both the amplitude and the phase of the complex field using straightforward algorithms.I recommend you to go step-by-step. Start with the simple amplitude and phase pattern, and pay attention to our protocol details, including complementary tasks, like the salient coloration. Please note that the iris side depend on the selective piece itself.However increasing too much the pixel cell can significantly reduce the spatial resolution of the retrieved complex field. This single method in orders to get the particular application, but it can be Westbury used for any reshaping purposes, to enhance, for instance, micro processing move materials or Norlina microscopy.

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Characterization of Surface Modifications by White Light Interferometry: Applications in Ion Sputtering, Laser Ablation, and Tribology Experiments

In materials science and engineering it is often necessary to obtain quantitative measurements of surface topography with micrometer lateral resolution. ...

The Generation of Higher-order Laguerre-Gauss Optical Beams for High-precision Interferometry

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several  types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the  ...

Spatial Separation of Molecular Conformers and Clusters

Gas-phase molecular physics and physical chemistry experiments commonly use supersonic expansions through pulsed valves for the production of cold ...

Flame Experiments at the Advanced Light Source: New Insights into Soot Formation Processes

The following experimental protocols and the accompanying video are concerned with the flame experiments that are performed at the Chemical Dynamics ...

Atomic Force Microscopy of Red-Light Photoreceptors Using PeakForce Quantitative Nanomechanical Property Mapping

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) uses a pyramidal tip attached to a cantilever to probe the force response of a surface. The deflections of the tip can be ...

Measurement of X-ray Beam Coherence along Multiple Directions Using 2-D Checkerboard Phase Grating

A procedure for a technique to measure the transverse coherence of synchrotron radiation X-ray sources using a single phase grating interferometer is ...

Automation of Mode Locking in a Nonlinear Polarization Rotation Fiber Laser through Output Polarization Measurements

When a laser is mode-locked, it emits a train of ultra-short pulses at a repetition rate determined by the laser cavity length. This article outlines a ...

Using Synchrotron Radiation Microtomography to Investigate Multi-scale Three-dimensional Microelectronic Packages

Synchrotron radiation micro-tomography (SR&#181;T) is a non-destructive three-dimensional (3D) imaging technique that offers high flux for fast data ...

Subsurface Defect Localization by Structured Heating Using Laser Projected Photothermal Thermography

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering ...

Electric-field Control of Electronic States in WS2 Nanodevices by Electrolyte Gating

Electric-field Control of Electronic States in WS2 Nanodevices by Electrolyte Gating

A method of carrier number control by electrolyte gating is demonstrated. We have obtained WS2 thin flakes with atomically flat surface via scotch tape ...