Name: a flow cytometry-based cell surface protein binding assay for assessing selectivity and specificity of an anticancer aptamer
Uploaded: 2022-09-13T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Flow Cytometry-Based Cell Surface Protein Binding Assay for Assessing Selectivity and Specificity of an Anticancer Aptamer at JoVE.com

The authors acknowledge the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation (IMPACT) SEED funding, the &#34;Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellowship&#34; program at Deakin University, and the &#34;Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship&#34;.&#160;

NOTE: Prior to starting the experiment, wear personal protective equipment, including a lab coat, gloves, and goggles. See the Table of Materials for details about materials, reagents, equipment, and software used in this protocol.
1. Buffers required for the assay
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the buffers required for this experiment-the SELEX buffer required for aptamer folding, Blocking Buffer (BB), Wash Buffer (WB), and Binding Buffer (BiB) (Table 1...

<ol>
	<li>Cancer. World Health Organization Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer#:~:text=Cancer%20is%20a%20leading%20cause.and%20rectum%20and%20prostate%20cancers">https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer#:~:text=Cancer%20is%20a%20leading%20cause.and%20rectum%20and%20prostate%20cancers</a> (2022)</li><li>Liu, J. K. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+history+of+monoclonal+antibody+development+-+Progress,+remaining+challenges+and+future+innovations.">The history of monoclonal antibody development - Progress, remaining challenges and future innovations.</a> Annals of Medicine and Surgery. 3 (4), 113-116 (2014).</li><li>Nakhjavani, M., Shigdar, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Future+of+PD-1/PD-L1+axis+modulation+for+the+treatment+of+triple-negative+breast+cancer.">Future of PD-1/PD-L1 axis modulation for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer.</a> Pharmacological Research. 175, 106019 (2022).</li><li>Bukari, B., Samarasinghe, R. M., Noibanchong, J., Shigdar, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-invasive+delivery+of+therapeutics+into+the+brain:+the+potential+of+aptamers+for+targeted+delivery.">Non-invasive delivery of therapeutics into the brain: the potential of aptamers for targeted delivery.</a> Biomedicines. 8 (5), 120 (2020).</li><li>Wu, X., Chen, J., Wu, M., Zhao, J. X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aptamers:+active+targeting+ligands+for+cancer+diagnosis+and+therapy.">Aptamers: active targeting ligands for cancer diagnosis and therapy.</a> Theranostics. 5 (4), 322 (2015).</li><li>Feng, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+aptamer+functionalized+nanocomposite+used+for+prostate+cancer+diagnosis+and+therapy.">The aptamer functionalized nanocomposite used for prostate cancer diagnosis and therapy.</a> Journal of Nanomaterials. 2022, (2022).</li><li>Huang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advances+in+aptamer-based+biomarker+discovery.">Advances in aptamer-based biomarker discovery.</a> Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 9, 571 (2021).</li><li>Ashrafuzzaman, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aptamers+as+both+drugs+and+drug-carriers.">Aptamers as both drugs and drug-carriers.</a> BioMed Research International. 2014, (2014).</li><li>Nakhjavani, M., Samarasinghe, R. M., Shigdar, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Triple-negative+breast+cancer+brain+metastasis:+an+update+on+druggable+targets,+current+clinical+trials,+and+future+treatment+options.">Triple-negative breast cancer brain metastasis: an update on druggable targets, current clinical trials, and future treatment options.</a> Drug Discovery Today. , (2022).</li><li>Macdonald, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+bifunctional+aptamer+targeting+the+transferrin+receptor+and+epithelial+cell+adhesion+molecule+(EpCAM)+for+the+treatment+of+brain+cancer+metastases.">Development of a bifunctional aptamer targeting the transferrin receptor and epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) for the treatment of brain cancer metastases.</a> ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 8 (4), 777-784 (2017).</li><li>Macdonald, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bifunctional+aptamer-doxorubicin+conjugate+crosses+the+blood-brain+barrier+and+selectively+delivers+its+payload+to+EpCAM-positive+tumor+cells.">Bifunctional aptamer-doxorubicin conjugate crosses the blood-brain barrier and selectively delivers its payload to EpCAM-positive tumor cells.</a> Nucleic Acid Therapeutics. 30 (2), 117-128 (2020).</li><li>Shigdar, S., Agnello, L., Fedele, M., Camorani, S., Cerchia, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Profiling+cancer+cells+by+cell-SELEX:+use+of+aptamers+for+discovery+of+actionable+biomarkers+and+therapeutic+applications+thereof.">Profiling cancer cells by cell-SELEX: use of aptamers for discovery of actionable biomarkers and therapeutic applications thereof.</a> Pharmaceutics. 14 (1), 28 (2021).</li><li>Rahimizadeh, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+cell-specific+aptamers:+recent+advances+and+insight+into+the+selection+procedures.">Development of cell-specific aptamers: recent advances and insight into the selection procedures.</a> Molecules. 22 (12), 2070 (2017).</li><li>Chen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+cell-SELEX+technology+and+its+application+in+cancer+diagnosis+and+therapy.">Development of cell-SELEX technology and its application in cancer diagnosis and therapy.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 17 (12), 2079 (2016).</li><li>Shigdar, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+sensitive+chemical+antibodies+for+diagnosis:+detection+of+low+levels+of+EpCAM+in+breast+cancer.">The use of sensitive chemical antibodies for diagnosis: detection of low levels of EpCAM in breast cancer.</a> PLoS One. 8 (2), 57613 (2013).</li><li>Ni, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+the+EpCAM+(CD326)+in+prostate+cancer+metastasis+and+progression.">Role of the EpCAM (CD326) in prostate cancer metastasis and progression.</a> Cancer and Metastasis Reviews. 31 (3), 779-791 (2012).</li><li>Ni, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epithelial+cell+adhesion+molecule+(EpCAM)+is+associated+with+prostate+cancer+metastasis+and+chemo/radioresistance+via+the+PI3K/Akt/mTOR+signaling+pathway.">Epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) is associated with prostate cancer metastasis and chemo/radioresistance via the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.</a> The International Journal of Biochemistry &amp; Cell Biology. 45 (12), 2736-2748 (2013).</li><li>McKeague, M., Kruse, P. F., Patterson, M. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tissue Culture. , 395-397 (1973).</li><li>McKeague, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+minimum+aptamer+publication+standards+(MAPS+guidelines)+for+de+novo+aptamer+selection.">The minimum aptamer publication standards (MAPS guidelines) for de novo aptamer selection.</a> Aptamers. 6, 10-18 (2022).</li><li>Schoofs, G., Van Hout, A., D'huys, T., Schols, D., Van Loy, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+flow+cytometry-based+assay+to+identify+compounds+that+disrupt+binding+of+fluorescently-labeled+CXC+Chemokine+ligand+12+to+CXC+Chemokine+receptor+4.">A flow cytometry-based assay to identify compounds that disrupt binding of fluorescently-labeled CXC Chemokine ligand 12 to CXC Chemokine receptor 4.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (133), e57271 (2018).</li><li>McKinnon, K. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flow+cytometry:+an+overview.">Flow cytometry: an overview.</a> Current Protocols in Immunology. 120 (1), 1-11 (2018).</li><li>Kamiloglu, S., Sari, G., Ozdal, T., Capanoglu, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidelines+for+cell+viability+assays.">Guidelines for cell viability assays.</a> Food Frontiers. 1 (3), 332-349 (2020).</li><li>Ruscito, A., DeRosa, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Small-molecule+binding+aptamers:+Selection+strategies,+characterization,+and+applications.">Small-molecule binding aptamers: Selection strategies, characterization, and applications.</a> Frontiers in Chemistry. 4, 14 (2016).</li><li>McKeague, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comprehensive+analytical+comparison+of+strategies+used+for+small+molecule+aptamer+evaluation.">Comprehensive analytical comparison of strategies used for small molecule aptamer evaluation.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 87 (17), 8608-8612 (2015).</li><li>Henri, J., Bayat, N., Macdonald, J., Shigdar, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+guide+to+using+nucleic+acid+aptamers+in+cell+based+assays.">A guide to using nucleic acid aptamers in cell based assays.</a> Aptamers. 23, (2019).</li><li>Mao, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanism+and+regularity+of+quenching+the+effect+of+bases+on+fluorophores:+the+base-quenched+probe+method.">The mechanism and regularity of quenching the effect of bases on fluorophores: the base-quenched probe method.</a> Analyst. 143 (14), 3292-3301 (2018).</li><li>McKeague, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+in+vitro+aptamer+selection+parameters.">Analysis of in vitro aptamer selection parameters.</a> Journal of Molecular Evolution. 81 (5), 150-161 (2015).</li><li>Chen, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+negative+surface+charges+of+cancer+cells+by+multifunctional+nanoprobes.">Targeting negative surface charges of cancer cells by multifunctional nanoprobes.</a> Theranostics. 6 (11), 1887 (2016).</li><li>Shigdar, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RNA+aptamers+targeting+cancer+stem+cell+marker+CD133.">RNA aptamers targeting cancer stem cell marker CD133.</a> Cancer Letters. 330 (1), 84-95 (2013).</li><li>Amraee, M., Oloomi, M., Yavari, A., Bouzari, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+aptamer+identification+and+characterization+for+E.+coli+O157+detection+using+cell+based+SELEX+method.">DNA aptamer identification and characterization for E. coli O157 detection using cell based SELEX method.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 536, 36-44 (2017).</li><li>Yu, X. -. X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selection+and+characterization+of+a+novel+DNA+aptamer,+Apt-07S+specific+to+hepatocellular+carcinoma+cells.">Selection and characterization of a novel DNA aptamer, Apt-07S specific to hepatocellular carcinoma cells.</a> Drug Design, Development and Therapy. 14, 1535 (2020).</li></ol>

The key challenge with developing new aptamers is the lack of standard guidelines that applies to different steps of this process. McKeague et al. have recently demonstrated some of the associated challenges, which lead to unclear presentations of data in publications and failure to replicate the research. They proposed fundamental guidelines necessary for consideration in characterizing aptamers19. An aptamer binding assay is a critical step in screening and/or characterizing aptamers<sup class="...

Cancer is still one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide1. Despite the significant improvement in cancer treatment in recent decades, anticancer drug development is still a highly debated topic. This is because chemotherapy, as the mainstay of cancer treatment, is accompanied by serious side effects that limit patient compliance with the treatment. Moreover, chemotherapy-induced cancer resistance to treatment has restricted its application as the sole choice of medical intervention. The application of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) introduced an enhanced response to cancer treatments2. The rationale of using mAbs was to improve the efficacy of chemotherapeutics and minimize their adverse reactions. However, the administration of mAbs also became a challenge. This was not only because of the mAb-induced immunological reactions but also due to the animal-dependent and expensive production costs and difficult storage conditions3. Introduction of aptamers in the 1990s4 raised new hopes in cancer treatment, as the application of aptamers could address the challenges associated with mAbs.
Aptamers are short nucleic acid sequences that are specifically produced for a certain target. Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) is a common method in aptamer production. In SELEX, the protein of interest is incubated with a library of random nucleotide sequences, and through a series of iterative cycles, the aptamer specific for that protein is purified. Aptamers have similar target selectivity and specificity to mAbs, and therefore drug development in this field shows promising future applications. Aptamers specific for cancer biomarkers could be applied as single drugs and cancer diagnostic tools5,6,7. Due to their nano-sized structure, these aptamers could also act as drug carriers to deliver cytotoxic agents specifically to the tumor8. This would increase the efficacy of targeted drug delivery and decrease chemotherapy-associated, off-target adverse reactions. Moreover, these nanomedicines have a high tissue penetration, which makes them a desirable candidate for deep-tumor drug delivery and treatment. Aptamers can also be designed to target the transporters expressed on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to improve drug delivery to brain tumors9. A good example of such an aptamer are bifunctional aptamers, targeting the transferrin receptor (TfR)10 to enhance drug delivery across the BBB, and delivering a cytotoxic drug payload to tumor cells11.
Despite all the advantages of aptamers, drug development in this field has not yet yielded a marketed, successful anticancer drug. One reason for this could be the lack of standard and reproducible methods that could be followed globally by researchers in the field. In this paper, a step-by-step protocol of an aptamer binding to a native protein expressed on the cell surface is demonstrated. This protocol is a prerequisite step in the preclinical assessment of anticancer aptamers. The assay is performed to show the selectivity and specificity of the purified aptamer collected from SELEX or a published aptamer sequence for confirmation of selectivity and specificity. This flow cytometric-based assay is a rapid, reliable, sensitive assay that accurately shows the selectivity and specificity of the aptamer, where the aptamer is being tested against proteins on the cell surface12,13,14. This method is demonstrated using the binding of an aptamer specific for EpCAM shown in this paper15. EpCAM, as a transmembrane glycoprotein, plays roles in tumor cell signaling, progression, migration, and metastasis16,17. To show the selectivity and specificity of this aptamer, EpCAM-positive and -negative cancer cells were used. The previously developed EpCAM specific aptamer, TEPP (5&#8242;-GC GCG GTAC CGC GC TA ACG GA GGTTGCG TCC GT-3&#8242;), and a negative control aptamer, TENN (5&#8242;-GC GCG TGCA CGC GC TA ACG GA TTCCTTT TCC GT-3), were used as EpCAM-binding and -non-binding aptamers, respectively10. The 3&#39; end of both TEPP and TENN were labeled with a TYE665 fluorophore.
TEPP is a bifunctional aptamer that targets EpCAM from one end and TfR on the other. This has made TEPP a suitable candidate for drug delivery to EpCAM+ brain tumors. Using its TfR-specific end, TEPP traverses the blood-brain barrier, and using the EpCAM-specific end, finds the tumor and delivers its cargo (e.g., cytotoxic drugs) to the tumor. TENN has a similar length and 2D structure as TEPP, but it does not have affinity for the EpCAM or TfR, and hence is a suitable negative control aptamer. Using TEPP and TENN, testing the binding of an aptamer to the target protein using flow cytometry is shown in this paper. This protocol applies to the development of cell-specific aptamers. It is also applicable to further complementary and confirmation analyses of the aptamer sequences available in the literature. The protocol can also be used by those new to the aptamer field who are looking at using a previously published aptamer for their research and development (R&#38;D) purposes. In this paper, two aptamer sequences available in the literature are studied.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes with attached lid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T6649</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL CellStar blue screw cap, conical bottom tube</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio One</td>
			<td>188271</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mL serological pipettes</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio One</td>
			<td>606180</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD FACSCanto II Flow Becton Dickinson Cytometer</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD FACSDiva V9.0</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA), Lyophilized powder</td>
			<td>Sigma-AldrichTM</td>
			<td>A7906-50G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bright-line Hemocytometer</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z359629</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) High Glucose Media Powder</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>12100046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#8217;s Phosphate- Buffered Saline (DPBS)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>21300025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FlowJo, LLC 10.8.1</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Foetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Bovogen</td>
			<td>SFBS-F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK293T</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>ACS-4500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heracell 150i CO2 Incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heraeus Megafuge 16R Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M8266</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MDA-MB-231</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>CRM-HTB-26</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microplate, PS, 96 well, F-bottom (Chimney well), Black</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio One</td>
			<td>655076</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MiniAmp Thermal Cycler</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A37834</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS) tablets</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>18912014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pyrogen- and RNase-free ultrapure water</td>
			<td>Milli-Q</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T75 Cell Culture flask</td>
			<td>Cellstar</td>
			<td>658170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TENN</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>5&#8242;-GC GCG TGCA CGC GC TA ACG GA TTCCTTT TCC GT-3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TEPP</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>5&#8242;-GC GCG GTAC CGC GC TA ACG GA GGTTGCG TCC GT-3&#8242;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transfer RNA (tRNA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R8508-5X1ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypan Blue Solution</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15250061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15400054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a flow cytometry-based cell surface protein binding assay for assessing selectivity and specificity of an anticancer aptamer

A key challenge in developing an anticancer aptamer is to efficiently determine the selectivity and specificity of the developed aptamer to the target protein. Due to its several advantages over monoclonal antibodies, aptamer development has gained enormous popularity among cancer researchers. Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) is the most common method of developing aptamers specific for proteins of interest. Following SELEX, a quick and efficient binding assay accelerates the process of identification, confirming the selectivity and specificity of the aptamer. 
This paper explains a step-by-step flow cytometric-based binding assay of an aptamer specific for epithelial cellular adhesion molecule (EpCAM). The transmembrane glycoprotein EpCAM is overexpressed in most carcinomas and plays roles in cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. Therefore, it is a valuable candidate for targeted drug delivery to tumors. To evaluate the selectivity and specificity of the aptamer to the membrane-bound EpCAM, EpCAM-positive and -negative cells are required. Additionally, a non-binding EpCAM aptamer with a similar length and 2-dimensional (2D) structure to the EpCAM-binding aptamer is required. The binding assay includes different buffers (blocking buffer, wash buffer, incubation buffer, and FACS buffer) and incubation steps. 
The aptamer is incubated with the cell lines. Following the incubation and washing steps, the cells will be evaluated using a sensitive flow cytometry assay. Analysis of the results shows the binding of the EpCAM-specific aptamer to EpCAM-positive cells and not the EpCAM-negative cells. In EpCAM-positive cells, this is depicted as a band shift in the binding of the EpCAM aptamer to the right compared to the non-binding aptamer control. In EpCAM-negative cells, the corresponding bands of EpCAM-binding and -non-binding aptamers overlap. This demonstrates the selectivity and specificity of the EpCAM aptamer. While this protocol is focused on the EpCAM aptamer, the protocol is applicable to other published aptamers.

An important aspect of new drug discovery and development is assuring the selectivity and specificity of the drug candidate. This means that the drug candidate should be able to discriminate between different cells and only affect the cell population of interest (selectivity). Selectivity is studied using cell lines that differ in terms of expression of the protein of interest. In this study, MDA-MB-231 and HEK 293T cell lines were chosen as EpCAM-positive and -negative cells. Specificity is another determinant that show...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Flow Cytometry-Based Cell Surface Protein Binding Assay for Assessing Selectivity and Specificity of an Anticancer Aptamer at JoVE.com

A Flow Cytometry-Based Cell Surface Protein Binding Assay for Assessing Selectivity and Specificity of an Anticancer Aptamer

A necessary step in anticancer aptamer development is to test its binding to the target. We demonstrate a flow cytometric-based assay to study this binding, emphasizing the importance of including a negative control aptamer and cancer cells that are positive or negative for that particular protein.&#160;

A key challenge in developing an anticancer aptamer is to efficiently determine the selectivity and specificity of the developed aptamer to the target ...

This protocol will help researchers new to working with aptamers to be able to use them in their projects and also to understand the individual little steps that are required to complete the protocol. Aptamers are very versatile, and this protocol demonstrates how easy and simple they are in an immunophenotyping assay. Aptamers can be used for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications.This protocol is the first steps undertaken to confirm their specificity and sensitivity. While this particular assay demonstrates staining of one cell surface receptor, aptamers can very easily be used for multi-parametric flow cytometry, providing a high level of phenotypic knowledge. The important aspects of working with aptamers are ensuring that they are folded correctly prior to use, and also that the buffer and the ionic strength conditions are the same as when they were selected.After collecting and discarding the media in the flask, add three milliliters of PBS and spread it over the cells. After adding one milliliter of 0.25%of Trypsin-EDTA to each flask, incubate for five to 10 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius and visualize the detachment of cells under a microscope. Next, add one milliliter of complete medium to the cells and pipette the cells up and down to make a single cell suspension.Pipette the cells into an appropriate tube and centrifuge at 200 G for five minutes. After discarding the supernatant, resuspend the cells in one milliliter of fresh medium and count the cells using trypan blue staining by diluting certain volume of cell suspension with trypan blue. Distribute approximately 15 microliters of the mixture between a hemocytometer and a cover glass to count the cells.Collect the required number of cells, making sure to have a hundred thousand cells per test sample. Then incubate the cells at 37 degrees Celsius for two hours to allow the stabilization of the protein of interest on the cell membrane following enzymatic detachment. Following the two hours incubation, centrifuge the cells at 500 G for five minutes.After discarding the supernatant, resuspend the cells in 500 microliters of blocking buffer. Incubate the cells at four degrees Celsius for 30 minutes with intermittent mixing. During this 30 minute incubation, perform aptamer folding by preparing twice the concentrations of aptamers as described in the manuscript.Then mix and incubate the aptamers with the thermocycler machine according to the required folding conditions while ensuring to protect the aptamers from light. Following the 30 minutes incubation, centrifuge the cells as demonstrated previously and remove the supernatant. Then add one milliliter of wash buffer and centrifuge the cells again.After removing the supernatant, resuspend the cells in a suitable volume of the binding buffer. Next, pipette 50 microliters of the resuspended cells into each well of an ice cold 96 well black plate. Then pipette 50 microliters of the aptamers onto a 50 microliters volume of cells, mix and incubate in darkness at four degrees Celsius for 30 minutes.After centrifuge and removing the supernatant, carefully resuspend the pellet in wash buffer and again centrifuge at 500 G for five minutes. Then resuspend in 100 microliters of wash buffer for flow cytometric analysis while repeating the wash step twice. First, turn on the flow cytometer and then the computer.Next, open the flow cytometry analysis software, log into the program, and under the cytometer tab run fluid startup. To create a new experiment, under the experiment tab, click new folder, and name the folder slash experiment appropriately. Click on the new folder to highlight it.Then under the experiment tab again, click new experiment and name the experiment appropriately. To add the first sample slash specimen, under the experiment tab click new specimen and name the specimen appropriately. To add a tube sample, highlight the specimen and under the experiment tab, click new tube.Then add the appropriate number of tubes and name. To prepare the required graphs, under a worksheet tab, open a new worksheet. Once the new worksheet window pops up, prepare a dot blot graph of side scatter versus forward scatter to select the population of interest.Prepare a dot blot graph of forward scatter height versus forward scatter area to select the single cell population. Next, prepare a histogram of the number of events against the fluorophore of interest. Ensure that the acquisition dashboard for controlling the sample acquisition, inspector and cytometer to adjust voltage parameters as well as the worksheet with all the graphs is open before starting flow cytometry.First, run the untreated cells. Make sure the arrow pointing to the tube is green. If this arrow is not green, click on the arrow to make it green.Using up pipette, transfer each sample from the 96 well black plate to a flow cytometry tube. On the acquisition dashboard, choose an appropriate number of events to record, change the flow rate to low, and click Acquire Data. Adjust the voltage for the FSC and SCC parameters, ensuring that the cell population is centralized within the dot plot and that no cells are touching either axis of the graph to avoid losing the cells of interest.Define the first gate by identifying and selecting the population of interest in a forward and side scattered density plot while excluding the debris, which constitutes the population with the lowest forward scatter signal. Define the second gate by excluding doublet cell populations, as doublet cells considerably affect the results and conclusions. Increase the acquisition speed to medium or high to analyze the samples faster, but do not exceed more than 200 to 300 events per second.Then click record data. After adjusting the voltage and gating and recording the data, take out the sample and click Next Tube. Insert the next sample and repeat recording data for all control and test samples.Once all the data are collected, wash the flow cytometer by running three tubes of 50%bleach, FACSRinse and ultrapure water, each for five minutes at a high flow rate. Then from the cytometer dropdown menu, click fluidics shut down. Export the result as fsc files to a USB drive to transfer.Analyze them using the analysis software by pressing the new button to create a new document and window to handle the analysis, and drag the sample files into the new window. Double click to open the unstained sample. To gate the single cell population, choose the P1 population and double click on the P1 population to create an FSCH versus FSCA graph.Double click on the gated single cells to create a histogram of events against the used fluorochrome. In the original window select P1 and single cells and drag them to all samples so that all samples now contain the same gating. Next, click on the layout editor button to open the layouts window and drag two samples over one another to create overlay histogram.In EpCAM positive MDA-MB-231 cells, overlaying the histograms representing cells treated with TEPP and TENN shows that the TEPP treated cells are shifted to the right, compared to the TENN treated cells demonstrating that the binding of the TEPP aptamer occurs to the protein of interest. In negative control, HEK 293T cells overlaying histograms of TEPP and TENN do not reflect any shift indicating that in EpCAM expressing cells TEPP is the EpCAM aptamer attached to its receptor. And furthermore, no binding was observed in EpCAM negative cells, which confirms the selectivity and specificity of the developed aptamer.Ensure the aptamers are protected from light, the aptamers and cells are mixed on the plate, and the correct voltages are set on the flow cytometer. This is highly dependent on future applications for the aptamers. For example, we are focused on drug delivery.So the next step for us would be to assess if the aptamers are internalized using fluorescent microscopy. This protocol has demonstrated how easy it is for aptamers to replace monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies in immunophenotyping assays.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

A Method of Targeted Cell Isolation via Glass Surface Functionalization

One of the limiting factors to the adoption and advancement of personalized medicine is the inability to develop diagnostic tools to probe individual nuances in expression from patient to patient. Current methodologies that try to separate cells to fill this niche result in disruption of physiological expression, making the separation technique useless as a diagnostic tool. In this protocol, we describe the functionalization and optimization of a surface for the cellular capture and release. This functionalized surface integrates biotinylated antibodies with a glass surface functionalized with an aminosilane (APTES), desthiobiotin and streptavidin. Cell release is facilitated through the introduction of biotin, allowing the recollection and purification of cells captured by the surface. This release is done through the targeting of the secondary moiety desthiobiotin, which results in a much more gentle release paradigm. This reduction in harsh reagents and shear forces reduces changes in cellular expression. The functionalized surface captures up to 80% of cells in a single cell mixture and has demonstrated 50% capture in a dual-cell mixture. Applications of this technology to xenografts and cancer separation studies are investigated. Quantification techniques for surface verification such as plate reader and ImageJ analyses are described as well.

This protocol describes customizable surface functionalization of the desthiobiotin, streptavidin, and APTES system in order to isolate specific cell types of interest. In addition, this manuscript covers the applications, optimization, and verification of this process.

One of the limiting factors to the adoption and advancement of personalized medicine is the inability to develop diagnostic tools to probe individual ...

Fluorescent Orthotopic Mouse Model of Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic cancer remains one of the cancers for which survival has not improved substantially in the last few decades. Only 7% of diagnosed patients will survive longer than five years. In order to understand and mimic the microenvironment of pancreatic tumors, we utilized a murine orthotopic model of pancreatic cancer that allows non-invasive imaging of tumor progression in real time. Pancreatic cancer cells expressing green fluorescent protein (PANC-1 GFP) were suspended in basement membrane matrix, high concentration, (e.g., Matrigel HC) with serum-free media and then injected into the tail of the pancreas via laparotomy. The cell suspension in the high concentration basement membrane matrix becomes a gel-like substance once it reaches room temperature; therefore, it gels when it comes in contact with the pancreas, creating a seal at the injection site and preventing any cell leakage. Tumor growth and metastasis to other organs are monitored in live animals by using fluorescence. It is critical to use the appropriate filters for excitation and emission of GFP. The steps for the orthotopic implantation are detailed in this article so researchers can easily replicate the procedure in nude mice. The main steps of this protocol are preparation of the cell suspension, surgical implantation, and whole body fluorescent in vivo imaging. This orthotopic model is designed to investigate the efficacy of novel therapeutics on primary and metastatic tumors.

A procedure to implant green fluorescent protein-expressing pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1 GFP) orthotopically into the pancreas of Balb-c Ola Hsd-Fox1nu mice to assess tumor progression and metastasis is presented here.

Pancreatic cancer remains one of the cancers for which survival has not improved substantially in the last few decades. Only 7% of diagnosed patients will ...

Anticancer Efficacy of Photodynamic Therapy with Lung Cancer-Targeted Nanoparticles

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive and non-surgical method representing an attractive alternative choice for lung cancer treatment. Photosensitizers selectively accumulate in tumor tissue and lead to tumor cell death in the presence of oxygen and the proper wavelength of light.
To increase the therapeutic effect of PDT, we developed both photosensitizer- and anticancer agent-loaded lung cancer-targeted nanoparticles. Both enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect-based passive targeting and hyaluronic-acid-CD44 interaction-based active targeting were applied. CD44 is a well-known hyaluronic acid receptor that is often introduced as a biomarker of non-small cell lung cancer. 
In addition, a combination of PDT and chemotherapy is adopted in the present study. This combination concept may increase anticancer therapeutic effects and reduce adverse reactions. 
We chose hypocrellin B (HB) as a novel photosensitizer in this study. It has been reported that HB causes higher anticancer efficacy of PDT compared to hematoporphyrin derivatives1. Paclitaxel was selected as the anticancer drug since it has proven to be a potential treatment for lung cancer2. 
The antitumor efficacies of photosensitizer (HB) solution, photosensitizer encapsulated hyaluronic acid-ceramide nanoparticles (HB-NPs), and both photosensitizer- and anticancer agent (paclitaxel)-encapsulated hyaluronic acid-ceramide nanoparticles (HB-P-NPs) after PDT were compared both in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro phototoxicity in A549 (human lung adenocarcinoma) cells and the in vivo antitumor efficacy in A549 tumor-bearing mice were evaluated.
The HB-P-NP treatment group showed the most effective anticancer effect after PDT. In conclusion, the HB-P-NPs prepared in the present study represent a potential and novel photosensitizer delivery system in treating lung cancer with PDT.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an alternative choice for lung cancer treatment. To increase the therapeutic effect of PDT, lung cancer-targeted nanoparticles combined with chemotherapy were developed. Both in vitro and in vivo anticancer efficacies of PDT with prepared nanoparticles were evaluated.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive and non-surgical method representing an attractive alternative choice for lung cancer treatment. ...

Flow Cytometry-based Drug Screening System for the Identification of Small Molecules That Promote Cellular Differentiation of Glioblastoma Stem Cells

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and most lethal primary brain tumor in adults, causing roughly 14,000 deaths each year in the U.S. alone. Median survival following diagnosis is less than 15 months with maximal surgical resection, radiation, and temozolomide chemotherapy. The challenges inherent in developing more effective GBM treatments have become increasingly clear, and include its unyielding invasiveness, its resistance to standard treatments, its genetic complexity and molecular adaptability, and subpopulations of GBM cells with phenotypic similarities to normal stem cells, herein referred to as glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). Because GSCs are required for tumor growth and progression, differentiation-based therapy represents a viable treatment modality for these incurable neoplasms. 
The following protocol describes a collection of procedures to establish a high throughput screening platform aimed at the identification of small molecules that promote GSC astroglial differentiation. At the core of the system is a glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) differentiation reporter-construct. The protocol contains the following general procedures: (1) establishing GSC differentiation reporter lines; (2) testing/validating the relevance of the reporter to GSC self-renewal/clonogenic capacity; and (3) high-capacity flow-cytometry based drug screening. 
The screening platform provides a straightforward and inexpensive approach to identify small molecules that promote GSCs differentiation. Furthermore, utilization of libraries of FDA-approved drugs holds the potential for the identification of agents that can be repurposed more rapidly. Also, therapies that promote cancer stem cell differentiation are expected to work synergistically with current "standard of care" therapies that have been shown to target and eliminate primarily more differentiated cancer cells.

An efficient screening protocol is presented for the identification of small molecules that promote astroglial differentiation in glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). The assay is based on a stem cell differentiation reporter whereby the expression of the enhanced GFP (eGFP) is driven by the human GFAP promoter.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and most lethal primary brain tumor in adults, causing roughly 14,000 deaths each year in the U.S. alone. Median ...

Two-dimensional Gel Electrophoresis Coupled with Mass Spectrometry Methods for an Analysis of Human Pituitary Adenoma Tissue Proteome

Human pituitary adenoma (PA) is a common tumor that occurs in the human pituitary gland in the hypothalamus-pituitary-targeted organ axis systems, and may be classified as either clinically functional or nonfunctional PA (FPA and NFPA). NFPA is difficult for early stage diagnosis and therapy due to barely elevating hormones in the blood compared to FPA. Our long-term goal is to use proteomics methods to discover reliable biomarkers for clarification of PA molecular mechanisms and recognition of effective diagnostic, prognostic markers and therapeutic targets. Effective two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) methods were presented here to analyze human PA proteomes, including preparation of samples, 2D gel electrophoresis, protein visualization, image analysis, in-gel trypsin digestion, peptide mass fingerprint (PMF), and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). 2-Dimensional gel electrophoresis matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry PMF (2DE-MALDI MS PMF), 2DE-MALDI MS/MS, and 2DE-liquid chromatography (LC) MS/MS procedures have been successfully applied in an analysis of NFPA proteome. With the use of a high-sensitivity mass spectrometer, many proteins were identified with the 2DE-LC-MS/MS method in each 2D gel spot in an analysis of complex PA tissue to maximize the coverage of human PA proteome.

Here, we present a two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) to separate and identify human pituitary adenoma tissue proteome, which presents a good and reproducible 2DE pattern. Many proteins are observed in each 2DE spot when analyzing complex cancer proteome with the use of high-sensitivity MS.

Human pituitary adenoma (PA) is a common tumor that occurs in the human pituitary gland in the hypothalamus-pituitary-targeted organ axis systems, and may ...

Immunophenotyping of Orthotopic Homograft (Syngeneic) of Murine Primary KPC Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma by Flow Cytometry

Homograft (syngeneic) tumors are the workhorse of today&#39;s immuno-oncology (I/O) preclinical research. The tumor microenvironment (TME), particularly its immune-components, is vital to the prognosis and prediction of treatment outcomes, especially those of immunotherapy. TME immune-components are composed of different subsets of tumor-infiltrating immune cells assessable by multi-color FACS. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is among the deadliest malignances lacking good treatment options, thus an urgent and unmet medical need. One important reason for its non-responsiveness to various therapies (chemo-, targeted, I/O) has been its abundant TME, consisting of fibroblasts and leukocytes that protect tumor cells from these therapies. Orthotopically implanted PDAC is believed to more accurately recapture the TME of human pancreatic cancers than conventional subcutaneous (SC) models.
Homograft tumors (KPC) are transplants of mouse spontaneous PDAC originating from genetically engineered KPC-mice (KrasG12D/+/P53-/-/Pdx1-Cre) (KPC-GEMM). The primary tumor tissue is cut into small fragments (~2 mm3) and transplanted subcutaneously (SC) to the syngeneic recipients (C57BL/6, 7&#8211;9 weeks old). The homografts were then surgically orthotopically transplanted onto the pancreas of new C57BL/6 mice, along with SC-implantation, which reached tumor volumes of 300&#8211;1,000 mm3 by 17 days. Only tumors of 400&#8211;600 mm3 were harvested per approved autopsy procedure and cleaned to remove the adjacent non-tumor tissues. They were dissociated per protocol using a tissue dissociator into single-cell suspensions, followed by staining with designated panels of fluorescently-labeled antibodies for various markers of different immune cells (lymphoid, myeloid and NK, DCs). The stained samples were analyzed using multi-color FACS to determine numbers of immune cells of different lineages, as well as their relative percentage within tumors. The immune profiles of orthotopic tumors were then compared to those of SC tumors. The preliminary data demonstrated significantly elevated infiltrating TILs/TAMs in tumors over the pancreas, and higher B-cell infiltration into orthotopic rather than SC tumors.

Immunophenotyping of Orthotopic Homograft Syngeneic of Murine Primary KPC Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma by Flow Cytometry

The experimental procedure on the immunophenotyping of murine orthotopic PDAC homografts aims at profiling the tumor immuno-microenvironment. Tumors are orthotopically implanted via surgery. Tumors of 200&#8211;600 mm3 in size were harvested and dissociated to prepare single-cell suspensions, followed by multi-immune marker FACS analysis using different fluorescently-labeled antibodies.

Homograft (syngeneic) tumors are the workhorse of today&#39;s immuno-oncology (I/O) preclinical research. The tumor microenvironment (TME), particularly ...

Phospho Flow Cytometry with Fluorescent Cell Barcoding for Single Cell Signaling Analysis and Biomarker Discovery

Aberrant cell signaling plays a central role in cancer development and progression. Most novel targeted therapies are indeed directed at proteins and protein functions, and cell signaling aberrations may therefore serve as biomarkers to indicate personalized treatment options. As opposed to DNA and RNA analyses, changes in protein activity can more efficiently evaluate the mechanisms underlying drug sensitivity and resistance. Phospho flow cytometry is a powerful technique that measures protein phosphorylation events at the cellular level, an important feature that distinguishes this method from other antibody-based approaches. The method allows for simultaneous analysis of multiple signaling proteins. In combination with fluorescent cell barcoding, larger medium- to high-throughput data-sets can be acquired by standard cytometer hardware in short time. Phospho flow cytometry has applications both in studies of basic biology and in clinical research, including signaling analysis, biomarker discovery and assessment of pharmacodynamics. Here, a detailed experimental protocol is provided for phospho flow analysis of purified peripheral blood mononuclear cells, using chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells as an example.

Here, a protocol for medium- to high-throughput analysis of protein phosphorylation events at the cellular level is presented. Phospho flow cytometry is a powerful approach to characterize signaling aberrations, identify and validate biomarkers, and assess pharmacodynamics.

Aberrant cell signaling plays a central role in cancer development and progression. Most novel targeted therapies are indeed directed at proteins and ...

Real Time Detection of In Vitro Tumor Cell Apoptosis Induced by CD8+ T Cells to Study Immune Suppressive Functions of Tumor-infiltrating Myeloid Cells

Potentiation of the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells in tumors, along with their efficient tumor infiltration, is a key element of successful immunotherapies. Several studies have indicated that tumor infiltrating myeloid cells (e.g., myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs)) suppress cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells in the tumor microenvironment, and that targeting these regulatory myeloid cells can improve immunotherapies. Here, we present an in vitro assay system to evaluate immune suppressive effects of monocytic-MDSCs and TAMs on the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells. To this end, we first cultured na&#239;ve splenic CD8+ T cells with anti-CD3/CD28 activating antibodies in the presence or absence of suppressor cells, and then co-cultured the pre-activated T cells with target cancer cells in the presence of a fluorogenic caspase-3 substrate. Fluorescence from the substrate in cancer cells was detected by real-time fluorescence microscopy as an indicator of T-cell induced tumor cell apoptosis. In this assay, we can successfully detect the increase of tumor cell apoptosis by CD8+ T cells and its suppression by pre-culture with TAMs or MDSCs. This functional assay is useful for investigating CD8+ T cell suppression mechanisms by regulatory myeloid cells and identifying druggable targets to overcome it via high throughput screening.

Real Time Detection of In Vitro Tumor Cell Apoptosis Induced by CD8+ T Cells to Study Immune Suppressive Functions of Tumor-infiltrating Myeloid Cells

We describe here a protocol to investigate cytotoxicity of pre-activated CD8+ T cells against cancer cells by detecting apoptotic cancer cells via real-time microscopy. This protocol can investigate mechanisms behind myeloid cell-induced T cell suppression and evaluate compounds aimed at replenishing T cells via blockade of immune suppressive myeloid cells.

Potentiation of the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells in tumors, along with their efficient tumor infiltration, is a key element of successful ...

A Simple Migration/Invasion Workflow Using an Automated Live-cell Imager

Cancer cell mobility is crucial for the initiation of metastasis. Therefore, investigation of the cell movement and invasive capacity is of great significance. Migration assays provide basic insight of cell movement at a 2D level, whereas invasion assays are more physiologically relevant, mimicking in vivo cancer cell dislodgment from the original site and invading through the extracellular matrix. The current protocol provides a single workflow for migration and invasion assays. Together with the integrated automated microscopic camera for real-time HD images and built-in analysis module, it gives researchers a time-efficient, simple and reproducible experimental option. This protocol also includes substitutions for the consumables and alternative analysis methods for users to choose from.

The current protocol describes an integrated method investigating cancer cell migration and invasion on a single platform in real-time, providing an easily reproducible and time-efficient option to study cell mobility and morphology.

Cancer cell mobility is crucial for the initiation of metastasis. Therefore, investigation of the cell movement and invasive capacity is of great ...

Assessing Cell Viability and Death in 3D Spheroid Cultures of Cancer Cells

Three-dimensional spheroids of cancer cells are important tools for both cancer drug screens and for gaining mechanistic insight into cancer cell biology. The power of this preparation lies in its ability to mimic many aspects of the in vivo conditions of tumors while being fast, cheap, and versatile enough to allow relatively high-throughput screening. The spheroid culture conditions can recapitulate the physico-chemical gradients in a tumor, including the increasing extracellular acidity, increased lactate, and decreasing glucose and oxygen availability, from the spheroid periphery to its core. Also, the mechanical properties and cell-cell interactions of in vivo tumors are in part mimicked by this model. The specific properties and consequently the optimal growth conditions, of 3D spheroids, differ widely between different types of cancer cells. Furthermore, the assessment of cell viability and death in 3D spheroids requires methods that differ in part from those employed for 2D cultures. Here we describe several protocols for preparing 3D spheroids of cancer cells, and for using such cultures to assess cell viability and death in the context of evaluating the efficacy of anticancer drugs.

Here, we present several simple methods for evaluating viability and death in 3D cancer cell spheroids, which mimic the physico-chemical gradients of in vivo tumors much better than the 2D culture. The spheroid model, therefore, allows evaluation of the cancer drug efficacy with improved translation to in vivo conditions.

Three-dimensional spheroids of cancer cells are important tools for both cancer drug screens and for gaining mechanistic insight into cancer cell biology. ...