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This protocol describes the microfabrication techniques required to build a lab-on-a-chip, microfluidic electroporation device. The experimental setup performs controlled, single-cell-level transfections in a continuous flow and can be extended to higher throughputs with population-based control. An analysis is provided showcasing the ability to electrically monitor the degree of cell membrane permeabilization in real-time.
Current therapeutic innovations, such as CAR-T cell therapy, are heavily reliant on viral-mediated gene delivery. Although efficient, this technique is accompanied by high manufacturing costs, which has brought about an interest in using alternative methods for gene delivery. Electroporation is an electro-physical, non-viral approach for the intracellular delivery of genes and other exogenous materials. Upon the application of an electric field, the cell membrane temporarily allows molecular delivery into the cell. Typically, electroporation is performed on the macroscale to process large numbers of cells. However, this approach requires extensive empirical protocol development, which is costly when working with primary and difficult-to-transfect cell types. Lengthy protocol development, coupled with the requirement of large voltages to achieve sufficient electric-field strengths to permeabilize the cells, has led to the development of micro-scale electroporation devices. These micro-electroporation devices are manufactured using common microfabrication techniques and allow for greater experimental control with the potential to maintain high throughput capabilities. This work builds off a microfluidic-electroporation technology capable of detecting the level of cell membrane permeabilization at a single-cell level under continuous flow. However, this technology was limited to 4 cells processed per second, and thus a new approach for increasing the system throughput is proposed and presented here. This new technique, denoted as cell-population-based feedback control, considers the cell permeabilization response to a variety of electroporation pulsing conditions and determines the best-suited electroporation pulse conditions for the cell type under test. A higher-throughput mode is then used, where this 'optimal' pulse is applied to the cell suspension in transit. The steps for fabricating the device, setting up and running the microfluidic experiments, and analyzing the results are presented in detail. Finally, this micro-electroporation technology is demonstrated by delivering a DNA plasmid encoding for green fluorescent protein (GFP) into HEK293 cells.
Current therapeutic innovations in biomedical research, such as CAR-T (Chimeric Antigen Receptor Engineered T cell) cell therapy and genetic editing using CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat DNA sequences)/Cas9, heavily rely on the ability to deliver exogenous material both successfully and efficiently into the intracellular space1. In CAR-T therapy, the gold standard to perform the gene delivery step in cell therapy manufacturing is using viral vectors2. Though viral-mediated gene delivery is an efficient delivery modality, it also has several drawbacks. These include manufacturing costs, cy....
NOTE: Users should review all MSDS for the materials and supplies used in this protocol. Appropriate PPE should be worn at each step and sterile technique used during experimentation. Sections 1-7 discuss the device fabrication.
1. Device fabrication- Mask design
NOTE: Refer to Figure 2 for an illustration of the microfabrication process. The microfabrication steps are to be carried out in a cleanroom environment. Additio.......
Figure 4 highlights the operating principles behind the single-cell-level membrane permeabilization detection for a single pulse amplitude. Following the initiation of the electroporation experiment, the cell detection algorithm determines an optimal threshold for cell detection via a point-by-point, slope-based detection method. The system then continuously monitors (1) for a significant negative change in the measured electrical current, which is indicative of the entry of a cell. This is .......
The methodology presented within this protocol primarily focuses on the microfabrication of a microfluidic device that is then integrated into a specialized electroporation experimental setup. The term 'recipe', which is often used when describing the specifics of the microfabrication process, hints at the importance of following/optimizing each step to successfully fabricate a functioning device. However, certain critical steps within the process, when not optimized, such as UV exposure time/energy, PVD sputteri.......
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support by the National Science Foundation (NSF CBET 0967598, DBI IDBR 1353918) and the U.S. Department of Education's Graduate Training in Emerging Areas of Precision and Personalized Medicine (P200A150131) for funding graduate student J.J.S. on fellowship.
....Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
150-mm diameter petri dishes | VWR | 25384-326 | step 6.1.1 to secure wafer |
24-well tissue culture plates | VWR | 10062-896 | step 10.3.6 to plate electroporated cells |
33220A Waveform/Function generator | Agilent | step 9.2.3 electroporation pulse generator | |
4'' Si-wafers | University Wafer | subsection 2.1 for microfluidic channel fabrication | |
6-well tissue culture plates | VWR | 10062-892 | step 8.1.8 to plate cells |
Acetone | Fisher Scientific | A18-4 | step 2.1.2 for cleaning and step 5.1 photoresist lift-off |
Allegra X-22R Centrifuge | Beckman Coulter | steps 8.1.4 , 8.3.2. and 8.3.3. to spin down cells | |
AutoCAD 2018 | Autodesk | subsection 1.1. to design transparency masks | |
Buffered oxide etchant 10:1 | VWR | 901621-1L | subsection 3.1 for HF etching |
CCD Monochrome microscope camera | Hamamatsu | Orca 285 C4742-96-12G04 | step 11.2.3. for imaging |
CMOS camera- Sensicam QE 1.4MP | PCO | subsection 9.3 part of the experimental setup | |
Conductive Epoxy | CircuitWorks | CW2400 | subsection 7.6. for wire attachement |
Conical Centrifuge Tubes, 15 mL | Fisher Scientific | 14-959-70C | step 8.1.4. for cell centrifuging |
Dektak 3ST Surface Profilometer | Veeco (Sloan/Dektak) | step 2.1.15 and 5.4 for surface profilometry | |
Disposable biopsy punch, 0.75 mm | Robbins Instruments | RBP075 | step 6.2.3 for inlet access |
Disposable biopsy punch, 3 mm | Robbins Instruments | RBP30P | step 6.2.3 for outlet access |
DRAQ5 | abcam | ab108410 | step 11.2.2. for live cell staining |
Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium | ThermoFisher Scientific | 11885084 | step 8.1.2. part of media composition |
E3631A Bipolar Triple DC power supply | Agilent | step 9.2.1.-9.2.2.part of the experimental setup | |
Eclipse TE2000-U Inverted Microscope | Nikon |  subsection 9.3. part of the experimental setup | |
EVG620 UV Lithography System | EVG | Â step 2.1.9. and 2.2.7. for UV Exposure | |
Fetal Bovine Serum | Neuromics | FBS001 | step 8.1.2. part of media composition |
FS20 Ultrasonic Cleaner | Fisher Scientific | subsection 5.1. for photoresist lift-off | |
Glass Media Bottle with Cap, 100mL | Fisher Scientific | FB800100 | step 8.2.1. for buffer storage |
Glass Media Bottle with Cap, 500mL | Fisher Scientific | FB800500 | step 8.1.2.for media storage |
HEK-293 cell line | ATCC | CRL-1573 | subsection 8.1 for cell culturing |
HEPES buffer solution | Sigma Aldrich | 83264-100ML-F | step 8.2.1 part of electroporation buffer composition |
Hexamethyldisilazane | Sigma Aldrich | 379212-25ML | step 2.2.3 adhesion promoter |
HF2LI Lock-in Amplifier | Zurich Instruments | subsection 9.2 part of the experimental setup | |
HF2TA Current amplifier | Zurich Instruments | subsection 9.2 part of the experimental setup | |
Isopropyl Alcohol | Fisher Scientific | A459-1 | step 2.1.2 for cleaning, step 2.1.14 for rinsing wafer following SU-8 development, and step 6.3.1 for cleaning PDMS |
IX81 fluorescence microscope | Olympus | step 11.2.3 for imaging | |
L-Glutamine Solution | Sigma Aldrich | G7513-20ML | step 8.1.2. part of media composition |
M16878/1BFA 22 gauge wire | AWC | B22-1 | subsection 7.5 for device fabrication |
Magnesium chloride | Sigma Aldrich | 208337-100G | step 8.1.2 part of electroporation buffer composition |
MF 319 Developer | Kayaku Advanced Materials | 10018042 | step 2.2.9. photoresist developer |
Microposit S1818 photoresist | Kayaku Advanced Materials | 1136925 | step 2.2.4 positive photoresist for electrode patterning |
Microscope slides, 75 x 25 mm | VWR | 16004-422 | step 2.2.1 electrode soda lime glass substrate |
Model 2350 High voltage amplifier | TEGAM | 2350 | step 9.2.5. part of the experimental setup |
National Instruments LabVIEW | National Instruments | data acquisition | |
Needle, 30G x 1 in | BD Scientific | 305128 | step 10.1.1. part of the system priming |
PA90 IC OPAMP Power circuit | Digi-key | 598-1330-ND | Part of the custom circuit |
Penicillin-Streptomycin | Sigma Aldrich | P4458-20ML | step 8.1.2. part of media composition |
Plasmid pMAX-GFP | Lonza | VCA-1003 | step 8.3.4. for intracellular delivery |
Plastic tubing, 0.010'' x 0.030" | VWR | 89404-300 | step 10.1.2. for system priming |
Platinum targets | Kurt J. Lesker | subsection 4.2. for physical vapor deposition | |
Potassium chloride | Sigma Aldrich | P9333-500G | step 8.2.1. part of electroporation buffer composition |
Pump 11 PicoPlus microfluidic syringe pump | Harvard Apparatus | MA1 70-2213 | step 10.1.4. for system priming |
PVD75 Physical vapor deposition system | Kurt J. Lesker | subsection 4.1. for physical vapor deposition | |
PWM32 Spinner System | Headway Research | steps 2.1.6 and 2.2.2. for substrate coating with photoresist | |
PX-250 Plasma treatment system | March Instruments | subsection 7.2 for PDMS and glass substrate bonding | |
SDG1025 Function/Waveform generator | Siglent | step 9.2.2. part of the experimental setup | |
Sodium hydroxide | Sigma Aldrich | S8045-500G | step 8.2.1. part of electroporation buffer composition |
SU-8 2010 negative photoresist | Kayaku Advanced Materials | Y111053 | step 2.1.7. for microfluidic channel patterning |
SU-8 developer | Microchem | Y010200 | step 2.1.12. for photoresist developing |
Sucrose | Sigma Aldrich | S7903-1KG | step 8.2.1. part of electroporation buffer composition |
Sylgard 184 elastomer kit | Dow Corning | 3097358-1004 | step 6.2.1Â 10 : 1 mixture of PDMS polymer and hardening agent |
Syringe, 1 ml | BD Scientific | 309628 | step 8.3.4. part of system priming |
SZ61 Stereomicroscope System | Olympus | subsection 7.3. for channel and electrode alignment | |
Tissue Culture Treated T25 Flasks | Falcon | 353108 | step 8.1.2 for cell culturing |
Titanium targets | Kurt J. Lesker | subsection 4.2. for physical vapor deposition | |
Transparency masks | CAD/ART Services | steps 2.1.9. and 2.2.7. for photolithography | |
Trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane | Sigma Aldrich | 448931-10G | step 6.1.2. for wafer silanization |
Trypsin-EDTA solution | Sigma Aldrich | T4049-100ML | steps 8.1.3. and 8.3.1. for cell harvesting |
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