a-method-for-extracting-pigments-from-squid-doryteuthis-pealeii

A Method for Extracting Pigments from Squid <em>Doryteuthis pealeii</em>

Cephalopods can undergo rapid and adaptive changes in dermal coloration for sensing, communication, defense, and reproduction purposes. These capabilities ...

University of New Hampshire

&#xB9CE;&#xC740; &#xACE0;&#xAE09; &#xC758;&#xB8CC; &#xBC0F; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xD559;&#xC801; &#xC7A5;&#xCE58; microscale &#xD328;&#xD134;&#xD654; &#xD560; &#xC140;, &#xB2E8;&#xBC31;&#xC9C8;, &#xADF8;&#xB9AC;&#xACE0; &#xB2E4;&#xB978; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xD559;&#xC801; &#xC7AC;&#xB8CC;&#xC758; &#xD544;&#xC694;&#xD569;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;. &#xC555; &#xC804; &#xC789;&#xD06C; &#xC81C;&#xD2B8; biosensors, &#xC138;&#xD3EC; &#xAE30;&#xBC18; &#xBD84;&#xC11D; &#xC2E4;&#xD5D8; &#xBC0F; &#xB2E4;&#xB978; microscale &#xC758;&#xB8CC; &#xAE30;&#xAE30; &#xC81C;&#xC870; &#xCC98;&#xB9AC;&#xC758; &#xC0AC;&#xC6A9;&#xC5D0; &#xC124;&#xBA85; &#xD569;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;. Microelectromechanical &#xC2DC;&#xC2A4;&#xD15C; &#xAE30;&#xBC18; &#xC555; &#xC804; &#xD2B8;&#xB79C;&#xC2A4;&#xB4C0;&#xC11C;&#xB294; &#xB178;&#xC990;&#xC744; &#xD1B5;&#xD574; &#xADE0;&#xC77C; &#xD55C; &#xC720;&#xCCB4; &#xD750;&#xB984;&#xC744; &#xAC1C;&#xBC1C; &#xD558; &#xACE0;, monofunctional &#xC544;&#xD06C;&#xB9B4; &#xC5D0;&#xC2A4;&#xD14C; &#xB974;, sinapinic &#xC0B0;, deoxyribonucleic &#xC0B0; (DNA), &#xB2E8;&#xBC31;&#xC9C8;&#xACFC; DNA &#xAC74;&#xC124; &#xAE30;&#xACC4; &#xC784;&#xB300; &#xAD00;&#xB828; &#xAE30;&#xD310;&#xC5D0; &#xC798; &#xC815;&#xC758; &#xB41C; microscale &#xD328;&#xD134; &#xC900;&#xBE44;&#xC5D0; &#xC0AC;&#xC6A9; &#xB418;&#xC5C8;&#xB2E4;. &#xC6B0;&#xB9AC;&#xC758; &#xACB0;&#xACFC; &#xC555; &#xC804; &#xC789;&#xD06C; &#xC81C;&#xD2B8; &#xC99D; &#xCC29;&#xC740; biosensors, &#xC140; &#xBB38;&#xD654; &#xC2DC;&#xC2A4;&#xD15C;&#xACFC; &#xC758;&#xB8CC; &#xBC0F; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xD559;&#xC801; &#xC751;&#xC6A9; &#xD504;&#xB85C;&#xADF8;&#xB7A8;&#xC5D0; &#xB300; &#xD55C; &#xB2E4;&#xB978; &#xC7A5;&#xCE58;&#xB97C; &#xAC1C;&#xBC1C; &#xD558;&#xAE30; &#xC704;&#xD55C; &#xAC15;&#xB825;&#xD55C; &#xBE44; &#xC811;&#xCD09;, &#xBE44; &#xD30C;&#xAD34;&#xC801;&#xC778; &#xCCA8;&#xAC00;&#xC81C; &#xACFC;&#xC815;&#xC744; &#xBCF4;&#xC5EC; &#xC90D;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;.

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Muchos de los dispositivos m&#xE9;dicos y biol&#xF3;gicos avanzados requieren patrones microescala de las c&#xE9;lulas, prote&#xED;nas y otros materiales biol&#xF3;gicos. Este art&#xED;culo describe el uso de procesamiento piezoel&#xE9;ctrico chorros de tinta en la fabricaci&#xF3;n de biosensores, ensayos basados &#x200B;&#x200B;en c&#xE9;lulas y otros dispositivos m&#xE9;dicos microescala. Un microelectromec&#xE1;nicos basado en el sistema transductor piezoel&#xE9;ctrico se utiliz&#xF3; para desarrollar el flujo de fluido uniforme a trav&#xE9;s de las boquillas y preparar bien definidos los patrones de la microescala de las prote&#xED;nas, &#xE9;steres de acrilato monofuncional, &#xE1;cido sinapinic, el &#xE1;cido desoxirribonucleico (ADN), y los andamios de ADN en sustratos correspondientes. Nuestros resultados demuestran que la deposici&#xF3;n piezoel&#xE9;ctrica de inyecci&#xF3;n de tinta es un poderoso no-contacto, no destructivo proceso aditivo para el desarrollo de biosensores, sistemas de cultivos celulares y otros dispositivos para aplicaciones m&#xE9;dicas y biol&#xF3;gicas.

Tinta piezoel&#xE9;ctrica de procesamiento de Jet de Materiales para Aplicaciones M&#xE9;dicas y Biol&#xF3;gicas

&#x8BB8;&#x591A;&#x5148;&#x8FDB;&#x7684;&#x533B;&#x7597;&#x548C;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x8BBE;&#x5907;&#x9700;&#x8981;&#x5FAE;&#x578B;&#x9635;&#x5217;&#x7684;&#x7EC6;&#x80DE;&#x3001; &#x86CB;&#x767D;&#x8D28;&#x548C;&#x5176;&#x4ED6;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x6750;&#x6599;&#x3002;&#x8FD9;&#x7BC7;&#x6587;&#x7AE0;&#x4ECB;&#x7ECD;&#x4E86;&#x538B;&#x7535;&#x55B7;&#x58A8;&#x52A0;&#x5DE5;&#x5236;&#x5907;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x4F20;&#x611F;&#x5668;&#x3001; &#x57FA;&#x4E8E;&#x7EC6;&#x80DE;&#x7684;&#x68C0;&#x5B9A;&#x53CA;&#x5176;&#x4ED6;&#x5FAE;&#x578B;&#x533B;&#x7597;&#x88C5;&#x7F6E;&#x4E2D;&#x7684;&#x4F7F;&#x7528;&#x3002;&#x5FAE;&#x7535;&#x5B50;&#x673A;&#x68B0;&#x7CFB;&#x7EDF;&#x7684;&#x538B;&#x7535;&#x5F0F;&#x4F20;&#x611F;&#x5668;&#x7528;&#x6765;&#x5236;&#x5B9A;&#x901A;&#x8FC7;&#x55B7;&#x5634;&#x5747;&#x5300;&#x6D41;&#x4F53;&#x6D41;&#x52A8;&#x548C;&#x86CB;&#x767D;&#x3001; &#x4E00;&#x5143;&#x51FD;&#x6570;&#x4E19;&#x70EF;&#x9178;&#x916F;&#x3001; sinapinic &#x9178;&#x3001; &#x8131;&#x6C27;&#x6838;&#x7CD6;&#x6838;&#x9178; &#xFF08;DNA&#xFF09; &#x548C;&#x76F8;&#x5173;&#x7684;&#x886C;&#x5E95;&#x4E0A;&#x7684; DNA &#x652F;&#x67B6;&#x660E;&#x786E;&#x5FAE;&#x578B;&#x6A21;&#x5F0F;&#x4F5C;&#x51C6;&#x5907;&#x3002;&#x6211;&#x4EEC;&#x7684;&#x7814;&#x7A76;&#x7ED3;&#x679C;&#x8868;&#x660E;&#x538B;&#x7535;&#x55B7;&#x58A8;&#x6C89;&#x79EF;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x4F20;&#x611F;&#x5668;&#x3001; &#x7EC6;&#x80DE;&#x57F9;&#x517B;&#x7CFB;&#x7EDF;&#x53CA;&#x5176;&#x4ED6;&#x8BBE;&#x5907;&#x3001; &#x533B;&#x7597;&#x548C;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x5E94;&#x7528;&#x53D1;&#x5C55;&#x5F3A;&#x5927;&#x975E;&#x63A5;&#x89E6;&#x3001; &#x975E;&#x7834;&#x574F;&#x6027;&#x6DFB;&#x52A0;&#x5242;&#x8FDB;&#x7A0B;&#x3002;

&#x538B;&#x7535;&#x55B7;&#x58A8;&#x6750;&#x6599;&#x52A0;&#x5DE5;&#x7684;&#x533B;&#x5B66;&#x548C;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x5B66;&#x7684;&#x5E94;&#x7528;&#x7A0B;&#x5E8F;&#x3002;

Many advanced medical and biological devices require microscale patterning of cells, proteins, and other biological materials. This article describes the use of piezoelectric ink jet processing in the fabrication of biosensors, cell-based assays, and other microscale medical devices. A microelectromechanical system-based piezoelectric transducer was used to develop uniform fluid flow through nozzles and to prepare well-defined microscale patterns of proteins, monofunctional acrylate ester, sinapinic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and DNA scaffolds on relevant substrates. Our results demonstrate that piezoelectric ink jet deposition is a powerful non-contact, non-destructive additive process for developing biosensors, cell culture systems, and other devices for medical and biological applications.

Piezoelectric ink jet processing of materials for medical and biological applications.

Beaucoup de dispositifs m&#xE9;dicaux de pointe et biologiques exigent un motif microscopique des cellules, des prot&#xE9;ines, et d&#x26;#39;autres mati&#xE8;res biologiques. Cet article d&#xE9;crit l&#x26;#39;utilisation du traitement &#xE0; jet d&#x26;#39;encre pi&#xE9;zo-&#xE9;lectrique dans la fabrication de biocapteurs, les tests cellulaires et d&#x26;#39;autres micro-&#xE9;chelle des dispositifs m&#xE9;dicaux. Un micro-&#xE9;lectrom&#xE9;canique bas&#xE9; sur le syst&#xE8;me transducteur pi&#xE9;zo&#xE9;lectrique a &#xE9;t&#xE9; utilis&#xE9; pour d&#xE9;velopper des flux de fluide uniforme &#xE0; travers des buses et de pr&#xE9;parer ainsi d&#xE9;fini les mod&#xE8;les &#xE0; micro-de prot&#xE9;ines, d&#x26;#39;ester acrylate monofonctionnel, l&#x26;#39;acide sinapinique, acide d&#xE9;soxyribonucl&#xE9;ique (ADN), et des &#xE9;chafaudages d&#x26;#39;ADN sur des substrats pertinents. Nos r&#xE9;sultats d&#xE9;montrent que le d&#xE9;p&#xF4;t &#xE0; jet d&#x26;#39;encre pi&#xE9;zo-&#xE9;lectrique est un puissant sans contact, proc&#xE9;d&#xE9; additif non-destructive pour le d&#xE9;veloppement des biocapteurs, des syst&#xE8;mes de culture cellulaire et autres appareils pour des applications m&#xE9;dicales et biologiques.

Pi&#xE9;zo&#xE9;lectrique de traitement &#xE0; jet d&#x26;#39;encre de mat&#xE9;riaux pour applications m&#xE9;dicales et biologiques

Viele erweiterte biologischen und medizinischen Ger&auml;te erfordern Microscale Musterung der Zellen, Proteine und anderen biologischen Materialien. Dieser Artikel beschreibt die Verwendung von piezoelektrischen Tintenstrahl Verarbeitung bei der Herstellung von Biosensoren, zellbasierte Assays und anderen medizinischen Ger&auml;ten von Microscale. Ein Microelectromechanical System basierende piezoelektrischer Wandler diente einheitliche Fl&uuml;ssigkeitsstr&ouml;mung durch D&uuml;sen zu entwickeln und klar definierte Microscale Muster der Proteine, Monofunktionelle Acrylat Ester, Sinapinic S&auml;ure, Desoxyribonukleins&auml;ure (DNA) und DNA-Ger&uuml;sten auf relevanten Substraten vorzubereiten. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass piezoelektrische Ink-Jet-Abscheidung einer m&auml;chtigen ber&uuml;hrungslose, zerst&ouml;rungsfreie Additiv-Prozess f&uuml;r die Entwicklung von Biosensoren, Zellkultursysteme und andere Ger&auml;te f&uuml;r medizinische und biologische Anwendungen.

Piezoelektrische Ink-Jet-Verarbeitung der Materialien f&uuml;r medizinische und biologische Anwendungen.

Molti dispositivi medici e biologici avanzati richiedono Microscala patterning di cellule, proteine e altri materiali biologici. Questo articolo descrive l&#39;uso di elaborazione nella fabbricazione di biosensori, cell-based assays e altri dispositivi medici su microscala a getto di inchiostro piezoelettrica. Un trasduttore piezoelettrico basate sul sistema microelectromechanical &egrave; stato utilizzato per sviluppare uniforme flusso del fluido attraverso ugelli e preparare su microscala ben definiti modelli di proteine, estere di acrilato monofunzionali, acido sinapinic, acido desossiribonucleico (DNA) e ponteggi di DNA su substrati pertinenti. I nostri risultati dimostrano che deposizione a getto d&#39;inchiostro piezoelettrico &egrave; un potente processo additivo senza contatto, non-distruttivo per lo sviluppo di biosensori, sistemi di coltura cellulare e altri dispositivi per applicazioni biologiche e mediche.

Elaborazione a getto d&#39;inchiostro piezoelettrico di materiali per applicazioni biologiche e mediche.

&#x591A;&#x304F;&#x306E;&#x9AD8;&#x5EA6;&#x306A;&#x533B;&#x7642;&#x3084;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x5B66;&#x7684;&#x30C7;&#x30D0;&#x30A4;&#x30B9;&#x306F;&#x3001;&#x7D30;&#x80DE;&#x3001;&#x30BF;&#x30F3;&#x30D1;&#x30AF;&#x8CEA;&#x3001;&#x304A;&#x3088;&#x3073;&#x4ED6;&#x306E;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x5B66;&#x7684;&#x6750;&#x6599;&#x306E;&#x30DE;&#x30A4;&#x30AF;&#x30ED;&#x30D1;&#x30BF;&#x30FC;&#x30CB;&#x30F3;&#x30B0;&#x3059;&#x308B;&#x5FC5;&#x8981;&#x304C;&#x3042;&#x308A;&#x307E;&#x3059;&#x3002;&#x3053;&#x306E;&#x8CC7;&#x6599;&#x3067;&#x306F;&#x3001;&#x30D0;&#x30A4;&#x30AA;&#x30BB;&#x30F3;&#x30B5;&#x30FC;&#x3001;&#x7D30;&#x80DE;&#x30D9;&#x30FC;&#x30B9;&#x306E;&#x30A2;&#x30C3;&#x30BB;&#x30A4;&#x3001;&#x304A;&#x3088;&#x3073;&#x4ED6;&#x306E;&#x30DE;&#x30A4;&#x30AF;&#x30ED;&#x533B;&#x7642;&#x6A5F;&#x5668;&#x306E;&#x88FD;&#x9020;&#x306E;&#x5727;&#x96FB;&#x30A4;&#x30F3;&#x30AF;&#x30B8;&#x30A7;&#x30C3;&#x30C8;&#x51E6;&#x7406;&#x306E;&#x4F7F;&#x7528;&#x65B9;&#x6CD5;&#x306B;&#x3064;&#x3044;&#x3066;&#x8AAC;&#x660E;&#x3057;&#x307E;&#x3059;&#x3002;&#x5FAE;&#x5C0F;&#x96FB;&#x6C17;&#x6A5F;&#x68B0;&#x30B7;&#x30B9;&#x30C6;&#x30E0;&#x7CFB;&#x5727;&#x96FB;&#x30C8;&#x30E9;&#x30F3;&#x30B9;&#x30C7;&#x30E5;&#x30FC;&#x30B5;&#x306F;&#x3001;&#x30CE;&#x30BA;&#x30EB;&#x304B;&#x3089;&#x5747;&#x4E00;&#x306A;&#x6D41;&#x4F53;&#x306E;&#x6D41;&#x308C;&#x3092;&#x958B;&#x767A;&#x3057;&#x3001;&#x30BF;&#x30F3;&#x30D1;&#x30AF;&#x8CEA;&#x3001;&#x5358;&#x5B98;&#x80FD;&#x30A2;&#x30AF;&#x30EA;&#x30EC;&#x30FC;&#x30C8;&#x30A8;&#x30B9;&#x30C6;&#x30EB;&#x3001;&#x30B7;&#x30CA;&#x30D4;&#x30F3;&#x9178;&#x3001;&#x30C7;&#x30AA;&#x30AD;&#x30B7;&#x30EA;&#x30DC;&#x6838;&#x9178;&#xFF08;DNA&#xFF09;&#x3001;&#x304A;&#x3088;&#x3073;&#x95A2;&#x9023;&#x3059;&#x308B;&#x57FA;&#x677F;&#x4E0A;&#x306B;DNA&#x306E;&#x8DB3;&#x5834;&#x306E;&#x30DE;&#x30A4;&#x30AF;&#x30ED;&#x30D1;&#x30BF;&#x30FC;&#x30F3;&#x3092;&#x660E;&#x78BA;&#x306B;&#x5B9A;&#x7FA9;&#x3055;&#x308C;&#x305F;&#x6E96;&#x5099;&#x3092;&#x3059;&#x308B;&#x305F;&#x3081;&#x306B;&#x4F7F;&#x7528;&#x3055;&#x308C;&#x305F;&#x3002;&#x6211;&#x3005;&#x306E;&#x7D50;&#x679C;&#x306F;&#x3001;&#x5727;&#x96FB;&#x30A4;&#x30F3;&#x30AF;&#x30B8;&#x30A7;&#x30C3;&#x30C8;&#x5806;&#x7A4D;&#x304C;&#x30D0;&#x30A4;&#x30AA;&#x30BB;&#x30F3;&#x30B5;&#x30FC;&#x3001;&#x7D30;&#x80DE;&#x57F9;&#x990A;&#x30B7;&#x30B9;&#x30C6;&#x30E0;&#x3001;&#x533B;&#x7642;&#x3084;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x5B66;&#x7684;&#x7528;&#x9014;&#x306E;&#x305F;&#x3081;&#x306B;&#x4ED6;&#x306E;&#x30C7;&#x30D0;&#x30A4;&#x30B9;&#x3092;&#x958B;&#x767A;&#x3059;&#x308B;&#x305F;&#x3081;&#x306E;&#x5F37;&#x529B;&#x306A;&#x975E;&#x63A5;&#x89E6;&#x3001;&#x975E;&#x7834;&#x58CA;&#x30A2;&#x30C7;&#x30A3;&#x30C6;&#x30A3;&#x30D6;&#x6CD5;&#x3067;&#x3042;&#x308B;&#x3053;&#x3068;&#x3092;&#x793A;&#x3057;&#x3066;&#x3044;&#x308B;&#x3002;

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Piezoelectric inkjet printing of biomimetic inks for reactive surfaces.

The miniaturization of electrochemical sensors allows for the minimally invasive and cost effective examination of cellular responses at a high efficacy rate. In this work, an ink-jet printed superoxide dismutase electrode was designed, characterized, and utilized as a novel microfluidic device to examine the metabolic response of a 2D layer of macrophage cells. Since superoxide production is one of the first indicators of oxidative burst, macrophage cells were exposed within the microfluidic device to phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), a known promoter of oxidative burst, and the production of superoxide was measured. A 46 ± 19% increase in current was measured over a 30 min time period demonstrating successful detection of sustained macrophage oxidative burst, which corresponds to an increase in the superoxide production rate by 9 ± 3 attomoles/cell/s. Linear sweep voltammetry was utilized to show the selectivity of this sensor for superoxide over hydrogen peroxide. This novel controllable microfluidic system can be used to study the impact of multiple effectors from a large number of bacteria or other invaders along a 2D layer of macrophages, providing an in vitro platform for improved electrochemical studies of metabolic responses.

A printed superoxide dismutase coated electrode for the study of macrophage oxidative burst.

Fibronectin (FN) textiles are built as nanometer-thick fabrics. When uniaxially loaded, these fabrics exhibit a distinct threshold between elastic and plastic deformation with increasing stretch. Fabric mechanics are modeled using an eight-chain network and two-state model, revealing that elastic properties of FN depend on conformational extension of the protein and that plastic deformation depends on domain unfolding. Our results suggest how the molecular architecture of a molecule can be exploited for designer mechanical properties of a bulk material.

Differential contributions of conformation extension and domain unfolding to properties of fibronectin nanotextiles.

Cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis, possess neurally controlled, pigmented chromatophore organs that allow rapid changes in skin patterning and coloration in response to visual cues. This process of adaptive coloration is enabled by the 500% change in chromatophore surface area during actuation. We report two adaptations that help to explain how colour intensity is maintained in a fully expanded chromatophore when the pigment granules are distributed maximally: (i) pigment layers as thin as three granules that maintain optical effectiveness and (ii) the presence of high-refractive-index proteins-reflectin and crystallin-in granules. The latter discovery, combined with our finding that isolated chromatophore pigment granules fluoresce between 650 and 720 nm, refutes the prevailing hypothesis that cephalopod chromatophores are exclusively pigmentary organs composed solely of ommochromes. Perturbations to granular architecture alter optical properties, illustrating a role for nanostructure in the agile, optical responses of chromatophores. Our results suggest that cephalopod chromatophore pigment granules are more complex than homogeneous clusters of chromogenic pigments. They are luminescent protein nanostructures that facilitate the rapid and sophisticated changes exhibited in dermal pigmentation.

The structure-function relationships of a natural nanoscale photonic device in cuttlefish chromatophores.

Self-organizing large-scale extracellular-matrix protein networks.

Soft hydrogels such as alginate are ideal substrates for building muscle in vitro because they have structural and mechanical properties close to the in vivo extracellular matrix (ECM) network. However, hydrogels are generally not amenable to protein adhesion and patterning. Moreover, muscle structures and their underlying ECM are highly anisotropic, and it is imperative that in vitro models recapitulate the structural anisotropy in reconstructed tissues for in vivo relevance due to the tight coupling between sturcture and function in these systems. We present two techniques to create chemical and structural heterogeneities within soft alginate substrates and employ them to engineer anisotropic muscle monolayers: (i) microcontact printing lines of extracellular matrix proteins on flat alginate substrates to guide cellular processes with chemical cues, and (ii) micromolding of alginate surface into grooves and ridges to guide cellular processes with topographical cues. Neonatal rat ventricular myocytes as well as human umbilical artery vascular smooth muscle cells successfully attach to both these micropatterned substrates leading to subsequent formation of anisotropic striated and smooth muscle tissues. Muscular thin film cantilevers cut from these constructs are then employed for functional characterization of engineered muscular tissues. Thus, micropatterned alginate is an ideal substrate for in vitro models of muscle tissue because it facilitates recapitulation of the anisotropic architecture of muscle, mimics the mechanical properties of the ECM microenvironment, and is amenable to evaluation of functional contractile properties.

Micropatterning Alginate Substrates for in vitro Cardiovascular Muscle on a Chip.

Understanding the structure-function relationships of pigment-based nanostructures can provide insight into the molecular mechanisms behind biological signaling, camouflage, or communication experienced in many species. In squid Doryteuthis pealeii, combinations of phenoxazone-based pigments are identified as the source of visible color within the nanostructured granules that populate dermal chromatophore organs. In the absence of the pigments, granules experience a reduction in diameter with the loss of visible color, suggesting important structural and functional features. Energy gaps are estimated from electronic absorption spectra, revealing highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO)-lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energies that are dependent upon the varying carboxylated states of the pigment. These results implicate a hierarchical mechanism for the bulk coloration in cephalopods originating from the molecular components confined within in the nanostructured granules of chromatophore organs.

Leila F. Deravi

Department of Chemistry,
Materials Science Program

University of New Hampshire

A Method for Extracting Pigments from Squid Doryteuthis pealeii

Leila F. Deravi

Department of Chemistry,Materials Science Program

University of New Hampshire

A Method for Extracting Pigments from Squid Doryteuthis pealeii

Department of Chemistry,
Materials Science Program