This work was supported by the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Case Western Reserve University through both lab start-up funds (J. Capadona), and the Medtronic Graduate Fellowship (K. Potter). Additional funding on this research was supported in part by NSF grant ECS-0621984 (C. Zorman), the Case Alumni Association (C. Zorman), the Department of Veterans Affairs through a Merit Review Award (B7122R), as well as the Advanced Platform Technology Center (C3819C).

1. Sample Preparation
<ol>
 <li>Prepare PVAc-NC film of thickness in the range of 25-100 &mu;m using a solution casting and compression technique10-12. 
 </li>
 <li>Adhere film to a silicon wafer by heating on a hot plate for two min at 70 &deg;C (above the glass transition temperature) to promote intimate contact between the film and the wafer. This step ensures that the prepared film remains flat and fixed to the Si wafer, which is necessary for planar micromachining processes.
 </li>
 <li>Pattern the film into the test sample geometries by laser-micromachining (VLS 3.50, VersaLASER). Set the CO2 direct-write laser micromachining parameters to 1.0% power (0.5 W), 4.0% speed (56 mm/s), and 1,000 pulses per inch13,16. </li>
 <li>Pattern samples that will be used to establish environmental conditions ("setup samples") into dogbone-shaped structures with lateral pad dimensions 1.5 x 1.5 mm2, and lateral beam dimensions 300 x 3,000 &mu;m2, with a thickness matching that of the film throughout (Figure 2).
 </li>
 <li>Pattern the samples for ex vivo experiments ("implant sample") into beams 300 &mu;m x 6 mm, with a thickness matching that of the film.
 </li>
 <li>Carefully release the samples from the wafer using a razor blade and tweezers. </li>
 <li>For sample handling, prepare custom-machined acrylic holders designed to serve as part of the grip system in the microtensile tester. Laser-etched markings show the centerline of the holder and 1.5 mm from the end. Place a small amount of cyanoacrylate gel-based adhesive on the centerline of the acrylic holder and carefully adhere a 1.5 mm length of the implant sample to the holder and overlap the marked centerline (Figure 3). Each implant sample requires one acrylic holder. Be careful to ensure that the adhesive gel remains only along the 1.5 mm length of PVAc-NC being adhered to the acrylic holder. Otherwise, the adhesive gel can interfere with the mechanical behavior of the sample. </li>
 <li>Remove moisture from all samples by placing them in a desiccator for at least 24 hr. </li>
 <li>Measure the length, width, and thickness dimensions of the samples using an optical microscope. </li>
</ol>
2. Establish Environmental Conditions
<ol>
 <li>Load a dry setup sample into the microtensile tester (see Figure 4), first clamping between the mobile grips, then between the fixed grips. </li>
 <li>Mount an air brush with a water-filled reservoir into a fixed position, with the nozzle directed toward the microtensile sample. Connect the air brush to an air compressor via plastic tubing. With the air brush nozzle completely closed, turn on the air compressor. </li>
 <li>Begin cyclic microtensile testing procedure, alternating between tensile strain (positive strain) and compressive strain (negative strain) applied to the sample, remaining within the linear elastic region of the stress-strain plot. For PVAc-NC, the applied strain is limited to less than 2%. In the custom microtensile tester used in these experiments, the strain rate was controlled while the required force to achieve that strain was measured. Alternatively, a different setup could involve controlling the applied force while measuring the resultant strain. </li>
 <li>Gradually increase the flow from the air brush nozzle, and monitor the slope of the stress-strain plot as a function of the amount of flow from the air brush. The maximum flow that does not cause a significant (&gt;10%) reduction in Young's modulus over a period of 60 sec is the level that will be used for the ex vivo experiments. At this point, the humidity conditions that will not wet a dry sample (and thus contribute to a reduction in Young's modulus), and will also minimize sample drying after being exposed to biological fluids in vivo have been established.</li>
 <li>Measure the temperature near the sample. An ideal setup would include a thermocouple with digital readout, and be performed while the airbrush is operating. Set the intensity and distance of the radiant heat source such that the sample temperature is held to 37 &deg;C, to match physiological conditions.
 </li>
</ol>
3. Compare Environmental Control to Non-Environmental Control
<ol>
 <li>Immerse setup samples for at least 30 min in phosphate buffered saline. After this amount of time, the sample is completely saturated and has been reduced to its minimum Young's modulus at a given temperature. </li>
 <li>Quickly load a sample into the microtensile tester and begin cyclic microtensile testing, with the air brush off, while the sample dries. This will determine how quickly the sample dries under non-controlled conditions.</li>
 <li>Load a second PBS-saturated setup sample into the microtensile tester, and begin cyclic microtensile testing with the air brush on. This will determine how quickly the sample dries under controlled environmental conditions. </li>
</ol>
4. Probe Implantation and Explantation
<ol>
 <li>Attach implant sample to a micromanipulator clamp and position orthogonal to the cortical tissue.</li>
 <li>Prior to insertion, keep tissue sufficiently moist with saline to ensure homogeneity of tissue mechanics.</li>
 <li>Lower the polymer sample into the cortex using the micromanipulator hand controls. Leave sample in cortical tissue until the target implant time, generally between 1 and 30 min. To prevent tissue from drying for time points over 5 min, lightly dab the tissue every 5 min using a saline-soaked cotton swab. </li>
 <li>While the probe is implanted in the cortex, prepare the microtensile tester for loading the currently implanted sample by setting the drive rod to the zero-displacement position of 3.0 mm from the stationary sample clamp. Also, set the air brush nozzle to the flow setting and the radiant heat source to the proper intensity determine in Step 2.4. </li>
 <li>At the end of the specified implant time, raise the probe out of the cortex using the micromanipulator hand controls. Immediately, and carefully, remove the sample from the micromanipulator clamp and load into the microtensile tester, as described in more detail in Step 5.2. </li>
</ol>
5. Microtensile Testing of Implant Samples
<ol>
 <li>To save time after explantation, ensure that the microtensile tester is completely ready to accept the implant sample prior to implantation, as described in Step 4.4.</li>
 <li>Immediately after explantation, load the sample between the two sets of microtensile tester clamps. Since the sample is mounted to an acrylic holder designed to serve as the top half of one clamp, place the implant sample assembly on the mobile grip, sample side down. It is important to ensure that the sample is mounted such that strain is applied only along the length of the probe to avoid applying torque to the sample during testing. As such, the sample must be mounted to the center of each clamp, and the clamps must be level with respect to each other. </li>
 <li>Adjust the sample position such that the distance between the clamps is 3.0 mm, and the end of the probe is placed into the fixed clamp. This 3.0 mm length between clamps is the gauge length for the sample, and will be used in later calculations to determine the strain on the sample. </li>
 <li>Immediately after securing the sample between both clamps, and within 2 min of explantation from the neural tissue, activate the motor in the tensile direction to elongate the sample at a constant rate (10 &mu;m/sec used here), while simultaneously measuring and recording the elongation of the sample (using a displacement indicator, Mitutoyu 543-561) and associated force (using a load cell, Transducer Techniques MDB-2.5) required to strain the sample.</li>
 <li>Halt the microtensile test upon mechanical failure of the sample, or when the end of the drive rod range is reached. Export the collected data, and perform data analysis. </li>
 <li>Repeat the microtensile testing for each sample and/or each set of conditions (i.e. insertion time). </li>
</ol>
6. Data Analysis
<ol>
 <li>Convert the raw elongation data to engineering strain applied to the implant sample by dividing the distance of elongation by the initial gauge length, as described in Equation 1, where &epsilon; is the applied strain, t is time, d is the displacement measured by the micrometer indicator, and L0 is the initial gauge length of the sample: 
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50078/50078eq1.jpg" alt="Equation 1" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50078/50078eq1highres.jpg"/> (1) </li>
 <li>Convert the raw force data to the engineering stress on the sample by dividing the force (in Newtons), by the transverse cross-sectional area, as described in Equation 2: 
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50078/50078eq2.jpg" alt="Equation 2" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50078/50078eq2highres.jpg"/> (2)
 
 where &sigma; is the stress on the sample, F is the force measured by the load cell (in Newtons), w0 is the initial width of the sample, and t0 is the initial thickness of the sample.</li>
 <li>Plot the stress (&sigma;[t]) vs. strain (&epsilon;[t]) curve for each sample using a computer program, such as Microsoft Excel.</li>
 <li>Isolate the linear elastic portion of the plot and use software-based curve fitting tools to find the best fit line to this portion. The slope of the best fit line corresponds to the Young's modulus of the sample. The isolated portion of the plot should include at least 10 stress-strain points, and should be taken from the portion of the plot where the slope is greatest. </li>
 <li>For cyclic tests, the Young's modulus will need to be determined for each cycle. This may be automated or performed manually.</li>
 <li>For the cyclic tests, plot the Young's modulus of each cycle versus time. This indicates how the measured modulus changes with time, which is indicative of how quickly a setup sample is wetting or drying.</li>
 <li>For implant samples, each sample and time of implant corresponds to a single cycle of the cyclic tests. Measure the Young's modulus using the procedure described above for each implant sample.
 </li>
 <li>Plot the Young's modulus versus implant time. At this point, comparisons can be made to benchtop investigations, etc.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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J., Pellinen, D. S., Pivin, D. P., Williams, J. C., Vetter, R. J., kirke, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flexible+polyimide-based+intracortical+electrode+arrays+with+bioactive+capability.">Flexible polyimide-based intracortical electrode arrays with bioactive capability.</a> IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 48, 361-371 (2001).</li><li>Hassler, C., Boretius, T., Stieglitz, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymers+for+neural+implants.">Polymers for neural implants.</a> Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics. 49, 18-33 (2011).</li><li>Mercanzini, A., Colin, P., Bensadoun, J. C., Bertsch, A., Renaud, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+Vivo+Electrical+Impedance+Spectroscopy+of+Tissue+Reaction+to+Microelectrode+Arrays.">In Vivo Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy of Tissue Reaction to Microelectrode Arrays.</a> IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 56, 1909-1918 (2009).</li><li>Polikov, V. S., Tresco, P. A., Reichert, W. 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We have nothing to disclose.

The advancement of implantable biomedical microelectromechanical systems (bioMEMS) for interacting with biological systems is motivating the development of new materials with highly-tailored properties. Some of these materials are designed to exhibit a change in material properties in response to a stimulus found in the physiological environment. One recently-developed class of materials responds to the presence of hydrogen bond-forming liquids (e.g. water) and elevated temperatures to reduce the Young's modulus...

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalogue Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafer</td>
			<td>University Wafer</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Mechanical grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Extruded acrylic sheet</td>
			<td>Professional Plastics</td>
			<td>SACR 062EF</td>
			<td>Thickness 0.062"</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor blade</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>3962A3</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tweezers</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>8384A47</td>
			<td>#5 tip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Super Glue Gel</td>
			<td>Loctite</td>
			<td>130380</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Air Brush</td>
			<td>Snap-on Industrial</td>
			<td>BF175TA</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Air Compressor</td>
			<td>Paasche</td>
			<td>B002YKN8YO</td>
			<td>D500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermocouple</td>
			<td>Omega</td>
			<td>HH12A</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td>Cimarec</td>
			<td>SP131325Q</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CO2 direct-write laser</td>
			<td>VersaLaser</td>
			<td>3.5</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dessicator</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08-595</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lamp</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>custom-built</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtensile tester</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>custom-built</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

environmentally-controlled microtensile testing of mechanically-adaptive polymer nanocomposites for ex vivo characterization

Implantable microdevices are gaining significant attention for several biomedical applications1-4. Such devices have been made from a range of materials, each offering its own advantages and shortcomings5,6. Most prominently, due to the microscale device dimensions, a high modulus is required to facilitate implantation into living tissue. Conversely, the stiffness of the device should match the surrounding tissue to minimize induced local strain7-9. Therefore, we recently developed a new class of bio-inspired materials to meet these requirements by responding to environmental stimuli with a change in mechanical properties10-14. Specifically, our poly(vinyl acetate)-based nanocomposite (PVAc-NC) displays a reduction in stiffness when exposed to water and elevated temperatures (e.g. body temperature). Unfortunately, few methods exist to quantify the stiffness of materials in vivo15, and mechanical testing outside of the physiological environment often requires large samples inappropriate for implantation. Further, stimuli-responsive materials may quickly recover their initial stiffness after explantation. Therefore, we have developed a method by which the mechanical properties of implanted microsamples can be measured ex vivo, with simulated physiological conditions maintained using moisture and temperature control13,16,17. 
To this end, a custom microtensile tester was designed to accommodate microscale samples13,17 with widely-varying Young's moduli (range of 10 MPa to 5 GPa). As our interests are in the application of PVAc-NC as a biologically-adaptable neural probe substrate, a tool capable of mechanical characterization of samples at the microscale was necessary. This tool was adapted to provide humidity and temperature control, which minimized sample drying and cooling17. As a result, the mechanical characteristics of the explanted sample closely reflect those of the sample just prior to explantation.
The overall goal of this method is to quantitatively assess the in vivo mechanical properties, specifically the Young's modulus, of stimuli-responsive, mechanically-adaptive polymer-based materials. This is accomplished by first establishing the environmental conditions that will minimize a change in sample mechanical properties after explantation without contributing to a reduction in stiffness independent of that resulting from implantation. Samples are then prepared for implantation, handling, and testing (Figure 1A). Each sample is implanted into the cerebral cortex of rats, which is represented here as an explanted rat brain, for a specified duration (Figure 1B). At this point, the sample is explanted and immediately loaded into the microtensile tester, and then subjected to tensile testing (Figure 1C). Subsequent data analysis provides insight into the mechanical behavior of these innovative materials in the environment of the cerebral cortex.

The mechanical properties of nearly all polymeric materials, including our PVAc-NC, are dependent upon exposure to environmental conditions. Most notably, these include the exposure to heat and moisture. When a material is plasticized due to the uptake of moisture, or undergoes a thermal transition, it displays a reduction in Young's modulus. In preparing the moisture- and temperature-controlled environment for ex vivo sample mechanical characterization, it is important to ensure that there is minimal change in...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Environmentally-controlled Microtensile Testing of Mechanically-adaptive Polymer Nanocomposites for ex vivo Characterization at JoVE.com

Environmentally-controlled Microtensile Testing of Mechanically-adaptive Polymer Nanocomposites for ex vivo Characterization

A method is discussed by which the in vivo mechanical behavior of stimuli-responsive materials is monitored as a function of time. Samples are tested ex vivo using a microtensile tester with environmental controls to simulate the physiological environment. This work further promotes understanding the in vivo behavior of our material.

Environmentally-controlled Microtensile Testing of Mechanically-adaptive Polymer Nanocomposites for ex vivo Characterization

Implantable microdevices are gaining significant attention for several biomedical applications1-4. Such devices have been made from a range of materials, ...

environmentally-controlled-microtensile-testing-mechanically-adaptive

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

10.1K Views.  Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center. A method is discussed by which the in vivo mechanical behavior of stimuli-responsive materials is monitored as a function of time. Samples are tested ex vivo using a microtensile tester with environmental controls to simulate the physiological environment. This work further promotes understanding the in vivo behavior of our material.

Video: Environmentally-controlled Microtensile Testing of Mechanically-adaptive Polymer Nanocomposites for ex vivo Characterization

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic valve leaflets are composed of interstitial cells suspended within an extracellular matrix (ECM) and are lined with an endothelial cell monolayer. The valve withstands a harsh, dynamic environment and is constantly exposed to shear, flexion, tension, and compression. Research has shown calcific lesions in diseased valves occur in areas of high mechanical stress as a result of endothelial disruption or interstitial matrix damage1-3. Hence, it is not surprising that epidemiological studies have shown high blood pressure to be a leading risk factor in the onset of aortic valve disease4. 
The only treatment option currently available for valve disease is surgical replacement of the diseased valve with a bioprosthetic or mechanical valve5. Improved understanding of valve biology in response to physical stresses would help elucidate the mechanisms of valve pathogenesis. In turn, this could help in the development of non-invasive therapies such as pharmaceutical intervention or prevention. Several bioreactors have been previously developed to study the mechanobiology of native or engineered heart valves6-9. Pulsatile bioreactors have also been developed to study a range of tissues including cartilage10, bone11 and bladder12. The aim of this work was to develop a cyclic pressure system that could be used to elucidate the biological response of aortic valve leaflets to increased pressure loads. 
The system consisted of an acrylic chamber in which to place samples and produce cyclic pressure, viton diaphragm solenoid valves to control the timing of the pressure cycle, and a computer to control electrical devices. The pressure was monitored using a pressure transducer, and the signal was conditioned using a load cell conditioner. A LabVIEW program regulated the pressure using an analog device to pump compressed air into the system at the appropriate rate. The system mimicked the dynamic transvalvular pressure levels associated with the aortic valve; a saw tooth wave produced a gradual increase in pressure, typical of the transvalvular pressure gradient that is present across the valve during diastole, followed by a sharp pressure drop depicting valve opening in systole. The LabVIEW program allowed users to control the magnitude and frequency of cyclic pressure. The system was able to subject tissue samples to physiological and pathological pressure conditions. This device can be used to increase our understanding of how heart valves respond to changes in the local mechanical environment.

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

A cyclic pressure bioreactor capable of subjecting heart valve tissue to physiological and pathological pressure conditions has been designed. A LabVIEW program allows users to control pressure magnitude, amplitude and frequency. This device can be used to study the mechanobiology of heart valve tissue or isolated cells.

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic ...

Ex vivo Mimicry of Normal and Abnormal Human Hematopoiesis

Hematopoietic stem cells require a unique microenvironment in order to sustain blood cell formation1; the bone marrow (BM) is a complex three-dimensional (3D) tissue wherein hematopoiesis is regulated by spatially organized cellular microenvironments termed niches2-4. The organization of the BM niches is critical for the function or dysfunction of normal or malignant BM5. Therefore a better understanding of the in vivo microenvironment using an ex vivo mimicry would help us elucidate the molecular, cellular and microenvironmental determinants of leukemogenesis6.
Currently, hematopoietic cells are cultured in vitro in two-dimensional (2D) tissue culture flasks/well-plates7 requiring either co-culture with allogenic or xenogenic stromal cells or addition of exogenous cytokines8. These conditions are artificial and differ from the in vivo microenvironment in that they lack the 3D cellular niches and expose the cells to abnormally high cytokine concentrations which can result in differentiation and loss of pluripotency9,10.
Herein, we present a novel 3D bone marrow culture system that simulates the in vivo 3D growth environment and supports multilineage hematopoiesis in the absence of exogenous growth factors. The highly porous scaffold used in this system made of polyurethane (PU), facilitates high-density cell growth across a higher specific surface area than the conventional monolayer culture in 2D11. Our work has indicated that this model supported the growth of human cord blood (CB) mononuclear cells (MNC)12 and primary leukemic cells in the absence of exogenous cytokines. This novel 3D mimicry provides a viable platform for the development of a human experimental model to study hematopoiesis and to explore novel treatments for leukemia.

Ex vivo Mimicry of Normal and Abnormal Human Hematopoiesis

A 3D culture system for hematopoiesis is described using human cord blood and leukemic bone marrow cells. The method is based on the use of a porous synthetic polyurethane scaffold coated with extracellular matrix proteins. This scaffold is adaptable to accommodate a wide range of cells.

Hematopoietic stem cells require a unique microenvironment in order to sustain blood cell formation1; the bone marrow (BM) is a complex three-dimensional ...

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

Imaging Denatured Collagen Strands In vivo and Ex vivo via Photo-triggered Hybridization of Caged Collagen Mimetic Peptides

Collagen is a major structural component of the extracellular matrix that supports tissue formation and maintenance. Although collagen remodeling is an integral part of normal tissue renewal, excessive amount of remodeling activity is involved in tumors, arthritis, and many other pathological conditions. During collagen remodeling, the triple helical structure of collagen molecules is disrupted by proteases in the extracellular environment. In addition, collagens present in many histological tissue samples are partially denatured by the fixation and preservation processes. Therefore, these denatured collagen strands can serve as effective targets for biological imaging. We previously developed a caged collagen mimetic peptide (CMP) that can be photo-triggered to hybridize with denatured collagen strands by forming triple helical structure, which is unique to collagens. The overall goals of this procedure are i)&#160;to image denatured collagen strands resulting from normal remodeling activities in vivo, and ii) to visualize collagens in ex vivo tissue sections using the photo-triggered caged CMPs. To achieve effective hybridization and successful in vivo and ex vivo imaging, fluorescently labeled caged CMPs are either photo-activated immediately before intravenous injection, or are directly activated on tissue sections. Normal skeletal collagen remolding in nude mice and collagens in prefixed mouse cornea tissue sections are imaged in this procedure. The imaging method based on the CMP-collagen hybridization technology presented here could lead to deeper understanding of the tissue remodeling process, as well as allow development of new diagnostics for diseases associated with high collagen remodeling activity.

Imaging Denatured Collagen Strands In vivo and Ex vivo via Photo-triggered Hybridization of Caged Collagen Mimetic Peptides

This procedure demonstrates in vivo near IR fluorescence imaging of collagen remodeling activities in mice as well as ex vivo staining of collagens in tissue sections using caged collagen mimetic peptides that can be photo-triggered to hybridize with denatured collagen strands.

Collagen is a major structural component of the extracellular matrix that supports tissue formation and maintenance. Although collagen remodeling is an ...

Biomechanical Characterization of Human Soft Tissues Using Indentation and Tensile Testing

Regenerative medicine aims to engineer materials to replace or restore damaged or diseased organs. The mechanical properties of such materials should mimic the human tissues they are aiming to replace; to provide the required anatomical shape, the materials must be able to sustain the mechanical forces they will experience when implanted at the defect site. Although the mechanical properties of tissue-engineered scaffolds are of great importance, many human tissues that undergo restoration with engineered materials have not been fully biomechanically characterized. Several compressive and tensile protocols are reported for evaluating materials, but with large variability it is difficult to compare results between studies. Further complicating the studies is the often destructive nature of mechanical testing. Whilst an understanding of tissue failure is important, it is also important to have knowledge of the elastic and viscoelastic properties under more physiological loading conditions.
This report aims to provide a minimally destructive protocol to evaluate the compressive and tensile properties of human soft tissues. As examples of this technique, the tensile testing of skin and the compressive testing of cartilage are described. These protocols can also be directly applied to synthetic materials to ensure that the mechanical properties are similar to the native tissue. Protocols to assess the mechanical properties of human native tissue will allow a benchmark by which to create suitable tissue-engineered substitutes.

Tissue biomechanics is important for maintaining cell shape and function and for determining phenotype. This report demonstrates non-destructive mechanical protocols for characterizing elastic and viscoelastic properties of human soft tissues, which can be directly applied to tissue-engineered substrates to allow a close matching of engineered materials to native tissue.

Regenerative medicine aims to engineer materials to replace or restore damaged or diseased organs. The mechanical properties of such materials should ...

A New Ex Vivo Model for the Evaluation of Endoscopic Submucosal Injection Material Performance

Increasing the performance of submucosal injection materials (SIMs) is important for endoscopic therapy of early gastrointestinal cancer. It is essential to establish an ex vivo model that can evaluate SIM performance accurately, for developing high-performance SIMs. In our previous study, we developed a new ex vivo model that can be used to evaluate the performance of various SIMs in detail by applying constant tension to the specimen&#39;s ends. We also confirmed that the proposed new ex vivo model allows accurate submucosal elevation height (SEH) measurement under uniform conditions and detailed comparisons of the performances of various types of SIMs. Here, we describe the new ex vivo model and explain the detailed setup methodology of this model. Since all parts of the new model were easy to obtain, the setup of the new model could be completed quickly. SEH of various SIMs could be measured more accurately by using the new model. The critical factor that determines SIM performance can be identified using the new model. SIM development speed will drastically increase after the factor has been identified.

A New Ex Vivo Model for the Evaluation of Endoscopic Submucosal Injection Material Performance

We developed a new ex vivo model that applies constant tension to the porcine gastric specimen. This development made it possible to evaluate the performance (the height and duration of the submucosal elevation) of various SIMs accurately.&#160; The detailed setup methodology of this new model is explained.

Increasing the performance of submucosal injection materials (SIMs) is important for endoscopic therapy of early gastrointestinal cancer. It is essential ...

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) Assays

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause inflammation, fever, hypo- or hypertension, and, in extreme cases, can lead to tissue and organ damage that may become fatal. The amounts of endotoxin in pharmaceutical products, therefore, are strictly regulated. Among the methods available for endotoxin detection and quantification, the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay is commonly used worldwide. While any pharmaceutical product can interfere with the LAL assay, nano-formulations represent a particular challenge due to their complexity. The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical guide to researchers inexperienced in estimating endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials and nanoparticle-formulated drugs. Herein, practical recommendations for performing three LAL formats including turbidity, chromogenic and gel-clot assays are discussed. These assays can be used to determine endotoxin contamination in nanotechnology-based drug products, vaccines, and adjuvants.

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate LAL Assays

Detection of endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials represents one of the grand challenges in the field of nanomedicine. Here, we present a case study that describes the framework composed of three different LAL formats to estimate potential endotoxin contamination in nanoparticles.

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause ...

Methods for In Vivo Biomechanical Testing on Brachial Plexus in Neonatal Piglets

Neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) is a stretch injury that occurs during the birthing process in nerve complexes located in the neck and shoulder regions, collectively referred to as the brachial plexus (BP). Despite recent advances in obstetrical care, the problem of NBPP continues to be a global health burden with an incidence of 1.5 cases per 1,000 live births. More severe types of this injury can cause permanent paralysis of the arm from the shoulder down. Prevention and treatment of NBPP warrants an understanding of the biomechanical and physiological responses of newborn BP nerves when subjected to stretch. Current knowledge of the newborn BP is extrapolated from adult animal or cadaveric BP tissue instead of in vivo neonatal BP tissue. This study describes an in vivo mechanical testing device and procedure to conduct in vivo biomechanical testing in neonatal piglets. The device consists of a clamp, actuator, load cell, and camera system that apply and monitor in vivo strains and loads until failure. The camera system also allows monitoring of the failure location during rupture. Overall, the presented method allows for a detailed biomechanical characterization of neonatal BP when subjected to stretch.

Methods for In Vivo Biomechanical Testing on Brachial Plexus in Neonatal Piglets

Presented here are methods to perform in vivo biomechanical testing on brachial plexus in a neonatal piglet model.

Neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) is a stretch injury that occurs during the birthing process in nerve complexes located in the neck and shoulder ...

Synthesis of Graphene-Hydroxyapatite Nanocomposites for Potential Use in Bone Tissue Engineering

Developing novel materials for bone tissue engineering is one of the most important thrust areas of nanomedicine. Several nanocomposites have been fabricated with hydroxyapatite to facilitate cell adherence, proliferation, and osteogenesis. In this study, hybrid nanocomposites were successfully developed using graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) and nanoparticles of hydroxyapatite (nHAPs), that when employed in bioactive scaffolds may potentially improve bone tissue regeneration. These nanostructures can be biocompatible. Here, two approaches were used for preparing the novel materials. In one approach, a co-functionalization strategy was used where nHAP was synthesized and conjugated to GNRs simultaneously, resulting in nanohybrids of nHAP on GNR surfaces (denoted as nHAP/GNR). High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) confirmed that the nHAP/GNR composite is comprised of slender, thin structures of GNRs (maximum length of 1.8 &#181;m) with discrete patches (150-250 nm) of needle-like nHAP (40-50 nm in length). In the other approach, commercially available nHAP was conjugated with GNRs forming GNR-coated nHAP (denoted as GNR/nHAP) (i.e., with an opposite orientation relative to the nHAP/GNR nanohybrid). The nanohybrid formed using the latter method exhibited nHAP nanospheres with a diameter ranging from 50 nm to 70 nm covered with a network of GNRs on the surface. Energy dispersive spectra, elemental mapping, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra confirmed the successful integration of nHAP and GNRs in both nanohybrids. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated that the loss at elevated heating temperatures due to the presence of GNRs was 0.5% and 0.98% for GNR/nHAP and nHAP/GNR, respectively. The nHAP-GNR nanohybrids with opposite orientations represent significant materials for use in bioactive scaffolds to potentially promote cellular functions for improving bone tissue engineering applications.

Novel nanocomposites of graphene nanoribbons and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles were prepared using solution-phase synthesis. These hybrids when employed in bioactive scaffolds can exhibit potential applications in tissue engineering and bone regeneration.

Developing novel materials for bone tissue engineering is one of the most important thrust areas of nanomedicine. Several nanocomposites have been ...

Microbial Control and Monitoring Strategies for Cleanroom Environments

Microbial Control and Monitoring Strategies for Cleanroom Environments and Cellular Therapies

A well-validated and holistic program that incorporates robust gowning, cleaning, environmental monitoring, and personnel monitoring measures is critical for minimizing the microbial bioburden in cellular therapy manufacturing suites and the corresponding testing laboratories to ensure that the facilities are operating in a state of control. Ensuring product safety via quality control measures, such as sterility testing, is a regulatory requirement for both minimally manipulated (section 361) and more than minimally manipulated (section 351) human cells, tissues, and cellular and tissue-based products (HCT/Ps). In this video, we provide a stepwise guide for how to develop and incorporate the best aseptic practices for operating in a cleanroom environment, including gowning, cleaning, staging of materials, environmental monitoring, process monitoring, and product sterility testing using direct inoculation, provided by the United States Pharmacopeia (USP&lt;71&gt;) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Alternative Sterility Testing Method. This protocol is intended as a reference guide for establishments expected to meet current good tissue practices (cGTP) and current good manufacturing practices (cGMP).

Author Spotlight: Microbial Control and Monitoring Strategies for Cleanroom Environments and Cellular Therapies  

The protocol summarizes the best practices to minimize microbial bioburden in a cleanroom environment and includes strategies such as environmental monitoring, process monitoring, and product sterility testing. It is relevant for manufacturing and testing facilities that are required to meet current good tissue practice standards and current good manufacturing practice standards.

A well-validated and holistic program that incorporates robust gowning, cleaning, environmental monitoring, and personnel monitoring measures is critical ...