We thank Krista den Ouden for her excellent technical assistance. This technique was financially supported by the Dutch Kidney foundation, grant C06.2174. M.C.V. is supported by the Netherlands organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) Vidi-grant 016.096.359.

All experiments are executed in accordance to the animal experimental ethical guide lines of the Utrecht experimental animal committee. The protocol is performed under the guidance and approval of the author's institution's animal care and use committee.
CKD is induced in male inbred Lewis rats (Charles River, Sulzfeld, Germany) at the age of 8 weeks. Rats are housed under standard conditions in a light-, temperature- and humidity-controlled environment.
1. Surgery Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Sterilize surgical instruments:
	<ul>
		<li>1 student tissue forceps 1-2 teeth 12 cm</li>
		<li>1 student standard pattern forceps</li>
		<li>2 Semken forceps</li>
		<li>1 Mayo scissors</li>
		<li>1 student iris scissors</li>
		<li>1 Olsen-Hegar needle holder with scissors</li>
		<li>Blanket</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li>Check inventory list:
	<ul>
		<li>Operating table with warming pad and lamp</li>
		<li>O2, isoflurane</li>
		<li>Tissues</li>
		<li>Shaver</li>
		<li>Scales</li>
		<li>Sterile operating set</li>
		<li>Sterile gauze 5x5 and 10x10</li>
		<li>70% alcohol</li>
		<li>0.9% NaCl solution</li>
		<li>1 ml syringe</li>
		<li>Needles (25G)</li>
		<li>Gel foam pads: spongostan</li>
		<li>Vicryl 4.0 and 5.0</li>
		<li>Buprenorphine 0.03 mg/kg (1:10 diluted in physiological salt)</li>
		<li>Clean cage for rats after surgery</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Right Side Uninephrectomy
<ol>
	<li>Disinfect the table with 70% alcohol.</li>
	<li>Place rat in induction box and induce anesthesia with 4% isoflurane and 1 liter flow of O2. Note: depending on the rat strain used, pre- and perioperative analgesia are prescribed, this needs to be discussed with the local veterinarian.</li>
	<li>Transfer rat to table and place nose into cone. The rat and nose cone are placed on a heating pad to maintain the rat's body temperature. The rat is ventilated with a mixture of 2% isoflurane and 1 liter O2.</li>
	<li>Shave the flank of the rat and disinfect with alcohol. Wash and disinfect hands and wear sterile surgical gloves. Wear a head cap and a mask. Make a 1- 1.5 cm incision parallel to the ribs using anatomical forceps and blunt scissors. Expose the kidney by blunt dissection of the back muscles.</li>
	<li>The lower pole of the kidney is visible, carefully use the small blunt forceps to grip the perirenal fat tissue. Externalize the kidney by gently pulling on the perirenal fat with forceps. Take care to not disturb the adrenal gland during this procedure. The adrenal gland can be easily removed by placing a forceps at the medial site in the fat tissue and gently moved upwards between the adrenal gland and the kidney as depicted in Figure 2.</li>
	<li>Place kidney gently on gauze and clear of surrounding fat and connective tissue. Identify the renal artery and vein and place a ligature (5.0 vicryl) with a single knot around the vessels, but do not tie off the knot.</li>
	<li>Move the loose knot carefully along the vessels towards the aorta by approximately 0.5 cm, to create space between the kidney and the knot. This is done to prevent the ligature from slipping off after cutting.</li>
	<li>Tie knot with two double knots. If perfusion is halted, the color of the kidney will immediately change to brown. Do not cut the ends of the ligature.</li>
	<li>Cut the renal vessels close to the kidney and remove the kidney. Gently pull on the long ends of the ligature to check for bleeding of the renal vessels. The ligature should stay in place on the vessel. Cut the long ends of the ligature. Note, the remnant renal vessels will retract into the abdominal cavity immediately.</li>
	<li>Blot excised kidney dry and weigh it.</li>
	<li>Close the skeletal muscle incision with running sutures with Vicryl 5.0. Inject 0.10 ml (0.03 mg/kg) buprenorphine i.m in the hind limb. Close the skin with Vicryl 4.0 with intracutaneous sutures. This prevents the rats from opening the wound. Note: due to respiratory depression in Lewis rats, we only give post-operative analgesia just before switching off the isoflurane.</li>
	<li>House the rat in a clean solitary cage with easy access to food and water. Place the cage half on warming pad O/N and check the rat carefully the next day. When the wound is closed and the rat is active, which is normally between 6 and 12 hr after surgery, the rat can be placed back into group housing.</li>
</ol>
3. Left Side Subtotal Nephrectomy
<ol>
	<li>Seven days later, the same preparations are made on the left side as for the right side as described from 2.1 to 2.5. Before surgery, the amount of renal tissue that needs to be removed corresponding to approximately 2/3rds of the weight of the right kidney is calculated. Prepare small pieces of gel foam (Spongostan, Johnson &amp; Johnson, New Jersey) before surgery.</li>
	<li>Place sharp scissors around the upper pole of the left kidney and resect the upper pole in one stroke (for scissor location, see Figure 3). Cover immediately with a piece of gel foam and exert mild pressure with sterile gauze.</li>
	<li>Repeat with the lower pole of the kidney as in 3.3.</li>
	<li>Lift kidney to prevent clotting on skin. Maintain mild pressure on both gel foam pads with sterile gauze until the bleeding stops. When bleeding persists, add another foam pad.</li>
	<li>Place remnant kidney with adherent gel foam pads inside the abdomen. Close the muscle and skin and follow 2.9-2.12.</li>
</ol>
4. Sham Surgery
<ol>
	<li>Sham operated controls undergo the same procedure in order to expose the kidneys. Instead of extirpating the kidney or cutting the poles one week later, both the kidneys are decapsulated at a one week interval, taking care not to disturb the adrenal glands. Wound closure and post-operative care are identical to 2.11 and 2.12.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Healthy+bone+marrow+cells+reduce+progression+of+kidney+failure+better+than+CKD+bone+marrow+cells+in+rats+with+established+chronic+kidney+disease.">Healthy bone marrow cells reduce progression of kidney failure better than CKD bone marrow cells in rats with established chronic kidney disease.</a> Cell Transplant. , (2012).</li><li>Baylis, C., Corman, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+aging+kidney:+insights+from+experimental+studies.">The aging kidney: insights from experimental studies.</a> J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 9 (4), 699-709 (1998).</li><li>Szabo, A. J., Muller, V., Chen, G. F., Samsell, L. J., Erdely, A., Baylis, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nephron+number+determines+susceptibility+to+renal+mass+reduction-induced+CKD+in+Lewis+and+Fisher+344+rats:+implications+for+development+of+experimentally+induced+chronic+allograft+nephropathy.">Nephron number determines susceptibility to renal mass reduction-induced CKD in Lewis and Fisher 344 rats: implications for development of experimentally induced chronic allograft nephropathy.</a> Nephrol. Dial Transplant. 23 (8), 2492-2495 (2008).</li><li>Darling, I. M., Morris, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+"true"+creatinine+clearance+in+rats+reveals+extensive+renal+secretion.">Evaluation of "true" creatinine clearance in rats reveals extensive renal secretion.</a> Pharm. Res. 8 (10), 1318-1322 (1991).</li><li>Levey, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+renal+function+in+chronic+renal+disease.">Measurement of renal function in chronic renal disease.</a> Kidney Int. 38 (1), 167-184 (1990).</li><li>Myers, G. L., Miller, W. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recommendations+for+improving+serum+creatinine+measurement:+a+report+from+the+Laboratory+Working+Group+of+the+National+Kidney+Disease+Education+Program.">Recommendations for improving serum creatinine measurement: a report from the Laboratory Working Group of the National Kidney Disease Education Program.</a> Clin. Chem. 52 (1), 5-18 (2006).</li><li>Hostetter, T. H., Meyer, T. 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Authors have nothing to disclose.

Surgical removal of 5/6th of renal mass in the Lewis rat, combined with a high-salt diet and temporary NOS inhibition leads to a model of CKD that resembles human CKD and allows study of causal mechanisms and efficacy of therapeutic interventions in CKD.
The 5/6th nephrectomy model is a well-known and extensively described model for CKD. However, simply removing 5/6th of renal mass does not lead to immediate renal failure in all rat strains. We use Lewis rats to study the effects of cell-based...

Due to its progressive nature, ensuing end stage kidney disease, and associated cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, CKD is a growing public health problem1. Slowing CKD progression is therefore a major health priority. Since CKD is characterized by complex derangements of homeostasis, integrative animal models are necessary to study development and progression of CKD. The kidney consists of a broad range of different cell types that interact with each other. This complexity cannot be mimicked in vitro.
To study novel therapeutic interventions in CKD, we use the 5/6th nephrectomy ablation model, a well-known experimental model of progressive renal disease, resembling several aspects of human CKD2,3. The gross reduction in renal mass causes progressive glomerular and tubulo-interstitial injury, loss of remnant nephrons and development of systemic and glomerular hypertension. It is associated with progressive intrarenal capillary loss4, inflammation and glomerulosclerosis. Risk factors for CKD invariably impact on endothelial function5. We used a rat strain (Lewis) that is relatively resistant to development of CKD and therefore we combined removal of 5/6th of renal mass with nitric oxide (NO) depletion6, 7, 8 and a high salt diet9. After arrival and acclimatization, animals receive a NO synthase inhibitor (L-NNA) supplemented to drinking water (20 mg/L) for a period of 4 weeks, followed by right sided uninephrectomy (UNX) with continuation of L-NNA after two days. One week later, subtotal nephrectomy (SNX) i.e. removal of 2/3rds of renal mass is performed on the left side. After SNX, animals are allowed to recover for 2 days followed again by 20 mg/L LNNA in drinking water for a period of 4 weeks. A high salt diet (6%), supplemented in ground chow (see time line Figure 1), is continued throughout the experiment. The reason to perform the UNX on the right side and the SNX on the left side is that the renal vessels are longer on the left side which makes it easier to access the kidney without stretching the vessels too much when the kidney is exposed outside the body. In literature, models are described in which the poles of the left kidney are removed first, followed by UNX of the right kidney one week later10,11,12. In our hands this model showed a much more rapid development of renal failure, but also a much larger variation in loss of renal function. Progression of renal failure is followed over time by measuring plasma urea, systolic blood pressure and proteinuria. By six weeks after SNX, renal failure has developed, characterized by marked reduction in glomerular filtration rate (69%) and effective renal plasma flow (62%)13 hypertension (systolic blood pressure&gt;150 mmHg), proteinuria (&gt; 50 mg/24 hr) and mild uremia (&gt;10 mM). Histological features include tubulo-interstitial damage reflected by inflammation, tubular atrophy and fibrosis and focal glomerulosclerosis leading to massive reduction of healthy glomeruli within the remnant population (&lt;10%). Follow-up until 12 weeks after SNX shows further progression of CKD, providing a window of opportunity for evaluation of therapeutic interventions.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-NNA</td>
			<td>Sigma-aldrich</td>
			<td>N5501</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spongostan dental: gel foam pads 1x1x1 cm</td>
			<td>Johnson&amp;Johnson</td>
			<td>Ms0005</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethicon Vicryl FS-2S naald 4/0 V392H p/36</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>V303H</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethicon Vicryl RB-1+ naald 5/0 V303H p/36</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>V392H</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buprenorphine (0.3 mg/ml)</td>
			<td>Via local pharmacist ordered by Reckitt Benckiser pharmaceuticals</td>
			<td>unknown</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Student Tissue Forceps - 1x2 Teeth 12 cm</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools (FST)</td>
			<td>91121-12</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Student Standard Pattern Forceps</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>91100-12</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mayo Scissors</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>14010-15</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2X Semken Forceps</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>11008-13</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Student Iris Scissors</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>91460-11</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Olsen-Hegar Needle Holder</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>12002-14</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

5/6th nephrectomy in combination with high salt diet and nitric oxide synthase inhibition to induce chronic kidney disease in the lewis rat

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global problem. Slowing CKD progression is a major health priority. Since CKD is characterized by complex derangements of homeostasis, integrative animal models are necessary to study development and progression of CKD. To study development of CKD and novel therapeutic interventions in CKD, we use the 5/6th nephrectomy ablation model, a well known experimental model of progressive renal disease, resembling several aspects of human CKD. The gross reduction in renal mass causes progressive glomerular and tubulo-interstitial injury, loss of remnant nephrons and development of systemic and glomerular hypertension. It is also associated with progressive intrarenal capillary loss, inflammation and glomerulosclerosis. Risk factors for CKD invariably impact on endothelial function. To mimic this, we combine removal of 5/6th of renal mass with nitric oxide (NO) depletion and a high salt diet. After arrival and acclimatization, animals receive a NO synthase inhibitor (NG-nitro-L-Arginine) (L-NNA) supplemented to drinking water (20 mg/L) for a period of 4 weeks, followed by right sided uninephrectomy. One week later, a subtotal nephrectomy (SNX) is performed on the left side. After SNX, animals are allowed to recover for two days followed by LNNA in drinking water (20 mg/L) for a further period of 4 weeks. A high salt diet (6%), supplemented in ground chow (see time line Figure 1), is continued throughout the experiment. Progression of renal failure is followed over time by measuring plasma urea, systolic blood pressure and proteinuria. By six weeks after SNX, renal failure has developed. Renal function is measured using 'gold standard' inulin and para-amino hippuric acid (PAH) clearance technology. This model of CKD is characterized by a reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and effective renal plasma flow (ERPF), hypertension (systolic blood pressure&gt;150 mmHg), proteinuria (&gt; 50 mg/24 hr) and mild uremia (&gt;10 mM). Histological features include tubulo-interstitial damage reflected by inflammation, tubular atrophy and fibrosis and focal glomerulosclerosis leading to massive reduction of healthy glomeruli within the remnant population (&lt;10%). Follow-up until 12 weeks after SNX shows further progression of CKD.

After subtotal nephrectomy, approximately 1/6th of total renal mass is left. Figure 4 shows the weight of the removed part of the right kidney with mean and standard deviation in two previous experiments. One should keep in mind that in the week after UNX, hypertrophy of the left kidney occurs; indicating that the weight that needs to be removed calculated based on the weight of the right kidney always results in less than 5/6th removal. However, since it is not possible to determine the weight of the le...

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5/6th Nephrectomy in Combination with High Salt Diet and Nitric Oxide Synthase Inhibition to Induce Chronic Kidney Disease in the Lewis Rat

A two-stage method to establish chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the Lewis rat by surgically removing 5/6th of renal mass is described. Combination of the surgical procedure, NOS-inhibition and a high-salt diet leads to a model resembling human CKD, allowing study of causal mechanisms and development of novel therapeutic interventions.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global problem. Slowing CKD progression is a major health priority. Since CKD is characterized by complex derangements ...

56th-nephrectomy-combination-with-high-salt-diet-nitric-oxide

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

23.5K Views.  University Medical Center Utrecht. A two-stage method to establish chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the Lewis rat by surgically removing 5/6th of renal mass is described. Combination of the surgical procedure, NOS-inhibition and a high-salt diet leads to a model resembling human CKD, allowing study of causal mechanisms and development of novel therapeutic interventions.

Video: 5/6th Nephrectomy in Combination with High Salt Diet and Nitric Oxide Synthase Inhibition to Induce Chronic Kidney Disease in the Lewis Rat

Analytical Techniques for Assaying Nitric Oxide Bioactivity

Nitric oxide (NO) is a diatomic free radical that is extremely short lived in biological systems (less than 1 second in circulating blood)1. NO may be considered one of the most important signaling molecules produced in our body, regulating essential functions including but not limited to regulation of blood pressure, immune response and neural communication. Therefore its accurate detection and quantification in biological matrices is critical to understanding the role of NO in health and disease. With such a short physiological half life of NO, alternative strategies for the detection of reaction products of NO biochemistry have been developed. The quantification of relevant NO metabolites in multiple biological compartments provides valuable information with regards to in vivo NO production, bioavailability and metabolism. Simply sampling a single compartment such as blood or plasma may not always provide an accurate assessment of whole body NO status, particularly in tissues. The ability to compare blood with select tissues in experimental animals will help bridge the gap between basic science and clinical medicine as far as diagnostic and prognostic utility of NO biomarkers in health and disease. Therefore, extrapolation of plasma or blood NO status to specific tissues of interest is no longer a valid approach. As a result, methods continue to be developed and validated which allow the detection and quantification of NO and NO-related products/metabolites in multiple compartments of experimental animals in vivo. The established paradigm of NO biochemistry from production by NO synthases to activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) to eventual oxidation to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) may only represent part of NO's effects in vivo. The interaction of NO and NO-derived metabolites with protein thiols, secondary amines, and metals to form S-nitrosothiols (RSNOs), N-nitrosamines (RNNOs), and nitrosyl-heme respectively represent cGMP-independent effects of NO and are likely just as important physiologically as activation of sGC by NO. A true understanding of NO in physiology is derived from in vivo experiments sampling multiple compartments simultaneously. Nitric oxide (NO) methodology is a complex and often confusing science and the focus of many debates and discussion concerning NO biochemistry. The elucidation of new mechanisms and signaling pathways involving NO hinges on our ability to specifically, selectively and sensitively detect and quantify NO and all relevant NO products and metabolites in complex biological matrices. Here, we present a method for the rapid and sensitive analysis of nitrite and nitrate by HPLC as well as detection of free NO in biological samples using in vitro ozone based chemiluminescence with chemical derivitazation to determine molecular source of NO as well as ex vivo with organ bath myography.

The endogenous production of nitric oxide (NO) regulates a wide variety of biological functions. It is becoming increasingly clear that disruption or dysregulation of NO based signaling is involved in many human diseases. Methods to quantify relevant NO metabolites may provide novel diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers for human disease.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a diatomic free radical that is extremely short lived in biological systems (less than 1 second in circulating blood)1. NO may be ...

Spectral Karyotyping to Study Chromosome Abnormalities in Humans and Mice with Polycystic Kidney Disease

Conventional method to identify and classify individual chromosomes depends on the unique banding pattern of each chromosome in a specific species being analyzed 1, 2. This classical banding technique, however, is not reliable in identifying complex chromosomal aberrations such as those associated with cancer. To overcome the limitations of the banding technique, Spectral Karyotyping (SKY) is introduced to provide much reliable information on chromosome abnormalities.
SKY is a multicolor fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH) technique to detect metaphase chromosomes with spectral microscope 3, 4. SKY has been proven to be a valuable tool for the cytogenetic analysis of a broad range of chromosome abnormalities associated with a large number of genetic diseases and malignancies 5, 6. SKY involves the use of multicolor fluorescently-labelled DNA probes prepared from the degenerate oligonucleotide primers by PCR. Thus, every chromosome has a unique spectral color after in-situ hybridization with probes, which are differentially labelled with a mixture of fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine, Texas Red, Cy5, FITC and Cy5.5). The probes used for SKY consist of up to 55 chromosome specific probes 7-10.
The procedure for SKY involves several steps (Figure 1). SKY requires the availability of cells with high mitotic index from normal or diseased tissue or blood. The chromosomes of a single cell from either a freshly isolated primary cell or a cell line are spread on a glass slide. This chromosome spread is labeled with a different combination of fluorescent dyes specific for each chromosome. For probe detection and image acquisition,the spectral imaging system consists of sagnac interferometer and a CCD camera. This allows measurement of the visible light spectrum emitted from the sample and to acquire a spectral image from individual chromosomes. HiSKY, the software used to analyze the results of the captured images, provides an easy identification of chromosome anomalies. The end result is a metaphase and a karyotype classification image, in which each pair of chromosomes has a distinct color (Figure 2). This allows easy identification of chromosome identities and translocations. For more details, please visit Applied Spectral Imaging website (<a href="http://www.spectral-imaging.com/" target="_blank">http://www.spectral-imaging.com/</a>).
SKY was recently used for an identification of chromosome segregation defects and chromosome abnormalities in humans and mice with Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD), a genetic disease characterized by dysfunction in primary cilia 11-13. Using this technique, we demonstrated the presence of abnormal chromosome segregation and chromosomal defects in ADPKD patients and mouse models 14. Further analyses using SKY not only allowed us to identify chromosomal number and identity, but also to accurately detect very complex chromosomal aberrations such as chromosome deletions and translocations (Figure 2).

Spectral Karyotyping (SKY) is an advanced cytogenetics technique to identify genomic and chromosomal aberrations. This technique takes advantage of chromosome painting probes, which allow classification of all chromosomes. SKY can also identify complex chromosome aberrations and segregation defects in mice and humans with various diseases, including polycystic kidney disease.

Conventional method to identify and classify individual chromosomes depends on the unique banding pattern of each chromosome in a specific species being ...

A Model of Chronic Nutrient Infusion in the Rat

Chronic exposure to excessive levels of nutrients is postulated to affect the function of several organs and tissues and to contribute to the development of the many complications associated with obesity and the metabolic syndrome, including type 2 diabetes. To study the mechanisms by which excessive levels of glucose and fatty acids affect the pancreatic beta-cell and the secretion of insulin, we have established a chronic nutrient infusion model in the rat. The procedure consists of catheterizing the right jugular vein and left carotid artery under general anesthesia; allowing a 7-day recuperation period; connecting the catheters to the pumps using a swivel and counterweight system that enables the animal to move freely in the cage; and infusing glucose and/or Intralipid (a soybean oil emulsion which generates a mixture of approximately 80% unsaturated/20% saturated fatty acids when infused with heparin) for 72 hr. This model offers several advantages, including the possibility to finely modulate the target levels of circulating glucose and fatty acids; the option to co-infuse pharmacological compounds; and the relatively short time frame as opposed to dietary models. It can be used to examine the mechanisms of nutrient-induced dysfunction in a variety of organs and to test the effectiveness of drugs in this context.

A protocol for chronic infusions of glucose and Intralipid in rats is described. This model can be used to study the impact of nutrient excess on organ function and physiological parameters.

Chronic exposure to excessive levels of nutrients is postulated to  affect the function of several organs and tissues and to contribute to the  ...

Assessment of Vascular Function in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared to the general population, and this is only partially explained by traditional CVD risk factors. Vascular dysfunction is an important non-traditional risk factor, characterized by vascular endothelial dysfunction (most commonly assessed as impaired endothelium-dependent dilation [EDD]) and stiffening of the large elastic arteries. While various techniques exist to assess EDD and large elastic artery stiffness, the most commonly used are brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMDBA) and aortic pulse-wave velocity (aPWV), respectively. Both of these noninvasive measures of vascular dysfunction are independent predictors of future cardiovascular events in patients with and without kidney disease. Patients with CKD demonstrate both impaired FMDBA, and increased aPWV. While the exact mechanisms by which vascular dysfunction develops in CKD are incompletely understood, increased oxidative stress and a subsequent reduction in nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability are important contributors. Cellular changes in oxidative stress can be assessed by collecting vascular endothelial cells from the antecubital vein and measuring protein expression of markers of oxidative stress using immunofluorescence. We provide here a discussion of these methods to measure FMDBA, aPWV, and vascular endothelial cell protein expression.

The degree of vascular dysfunction and contributing physiological mechanisms can be assessed in patients with chronic kidney disease by measuring brachial artery flow-mediated dilation, aortic pulse-wave velocity, and vascular endothelial cell protein expression.

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared to the general population, and this ...

Slow-release Drug Delivery through Elvax 40W to the Rat Retina: Implications for the Treatment of Chronic Conditions

Diseases of the retina are difficult to treat as the retina lies deep within the eye. Invasive methods of drug delivery are often needed to treat these diseases. Chronic retinal diseases such as retinal oedema or neovascularization usually require multiple intraocular injections to effectively treat the condition. However, the risks associated with these injections increase with repeated delivery of the drug. Therefore, alternative delivery methods need to be established in order to minimize the risks of reinjection. Several other investigations have developed methods to deliver drugs over extended time, through materials capable of releasing chemicals slowly into the eye. In this investigation, we outline the use of Elvax 40W, a copolymer resin, to act as a vehicle for drug delivery to the adult rat retina. The resin is made and loaded with the drug. The drug-resin complex is then implanted into the vitreous cavity, where it will slowly release the drug over time. This method was tested using 2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate (APB), a glutamate analogue that blocks the light response of the retina. It was demonstrated that the APB was slowly released from the resin, and was able to block the retinal response by 7 days after implantation. This indicates that slow-release drug delivery using this copolymer resin is effective for treating the retina, and could be used therapeutically with further testing.

This paper details how Elvax 40W can be used as a slow-release method for drug delivery to the adult rat retina. The protocol for preparing, loading, and delivering the drug-resin complex to the eye is described.

Diseases of the retina are difficult to treat as the retina lies deep within the eye. Invasive methods of drug delivery are often needed to treat these ...

Busulfan as a Myelosuppressive Agent for Generating Stable High-level Bone Marrow Chimerism in Mice

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is often used to replace the bone marrow (BM) compartment of recipient mice with BM cells expressing a distinct biomarker isolated from donor mice. This technique allows for identification of donor-derived hematopoietic cells within the recipient mice, and can be used to isolate and characterize donor cells using various biochemical techniques. BMT typically relies on myeloablative conditioning with total body irradiation to generate niche space within the BM compartment of recipient mice for donor cell engraftment. The protocol we describe here uses myelosuppressive conditioning with the chemotherapeutic agent busulfan. Unlike irradiation, which requires the use of specialized facilities, busulfan conditioning is performed using intraperitoneal injections of 20 mg/kg busulfan until a total dose of 60-100 mg/kg has been administered. Moreover, myeloablative irradiation can have toxic side effects and requires successful engraftment of donor cells for survival of recipient mice. In contrast, busulfan conditioning using these doses is generally well tolerated and mice survive without donor cell support. Donor BM cells are isolated from the femurs and tibiae of mice ubiquitously expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP), and injected into the lateral tail vein of conditioned recipient mice. BM chimerism is estimated by quantifying the number of GFP+ cells within the peripheral blood following BMT. Levels of chimerism&nbsp;>80% are typically observed in the peripheral blood 3-4 weeks post-transplant and remain established for at least 1 year. As with irradiation, conditioning with busulfan and BMT allows for the accumulation of donor BM-derived cells within the central nervous system (CNS), particularly in mouse models of neurodegeneration. This busulfan-mediated CNS accumulation may be more physiological than total body irradiation, as the busulfan treatment is less toxic and CNS inflammation appears to be less extensive. We hypothesize that these cells can be genetically engineered to deliver therapeutics to the CNS.

We describe a protocol whereby busulfan conditioning permits the bone marrow of a recipient mouse to be replaced with bone marrow cells from donor mice ubiquitously expressing green fluorescent protein, in the absence of irradiation. This technique is useful to study bone marrow cell accumulation in the central nervous system.

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is often used to replace the bone marrow (BM) compartment of recipient mice with BM cells expressing a distinct ...

Intravascular Delivery of Biologics to the Rat Kidney

The renal microvascular compartment plays an important role in the progression of kidney disease and hypertension, leading to the development of End Stage Renal Disease with high risk of death for cardiovascular events. Moreover, recent clinical studies have shown that renovascular structure and function may have a great impact on functional renal recovery after surgery. Here, we describe a protocol for the delivery of drugs into the renal artery of rats. This procedure offers significant advantages over the frequently used systemic administration as it may allow a more localized therapeutic effect. In addition, the use of rodents in pharmacodynamic analysis of preclinical studies may be cost effective, paving the way for the design of translational experiments in larger animal models. Using this technique, infusion of rat recombinant Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) protein in rats has induced activation of VEGF signaling as shown by increased expression of FLK1, pAKT/AKT, pERK/ERK. In summary, we established a protocol for the intrarenal delivery of drugs in rats, which is simple and highly reproducible.

The administration of drugs for recovery of kidney function requires control of the localization and distribution of the therapeutic compound. Here, we describe in detail a simple technique for intrarenal delivery of drugs in rats. This procedure may be easily performed with no mortality and high reproducibility.

The renal microvascular compartment plays an important role in the progression of kidney disease and hypertension, leading to the development of End Stage ...

Assessment of Kidney Function in Mouse Models of Glomerular Disease

The use of murine models to mimic human kidney disease is becoming increasingly common. Our research is focused on the assessment of glomerular function in diabetic nephropathy and podocyte-specific VEGF-A knock-out mice; therefore, this protocol describes the full kidney work-up used in our lab to assess these mouse models of glomerular disease, enabling a vast amount of information regarding kidney and glomerular function to be obtained from a single mouse. In comparison to alternative methods presented in the literature to assess glomerular function, the use of the method outlined in this paper enables the glomerular phenotype to be fully evaluated from multiple aspects. By using this method, the researcher can determine the kidney phenotype of the model and assess the mechanism as to why the phenotype develops. This vital information on the mechanism of disease is required when examining potential therapeutic avenues in these models. The methods allow for detailed functional assessment of the glomerular filtration barrier through measurement of the urinary albumin creatinine ratio and individual glomerular water permeability, as well as both structural and ultra-structural examination using the Periodic Acid Schiff stain and electron microscopy. Furthermore, analysis of the genes dysregulated at the mRNA and protein level enables mechanistic analysis of glomerular function. This protocol outlines the generic but adaptable methods that can be applied to all mouse models of glomerular disease.

This protocol describes a full kidney work-up that should be carried out in mouse models of glomerular disease. The methods allow for detailed functional, structural, and mechanistic analysis of glomerular function, which can be applied to all mouse models of glomerular disease.

The use of murine models to mimic human kidney disease is becoming increasingly common. Our research is focused on the assessment of glomerular function ...

Platelet-based Detection of Nitric Oxide in Blood by Measuring VASP Phosphorylation

Platelets are the blood components responsible for proper blood clotting. Their function is highly regulated by various pathways. One of the most potent vasoactive agents, nitric oxide (NO), can also act as a powerful inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Direct NO detection in blood is very challenging due to its high reactivity with cell-free hemoglobin that limits NO half-life to the millisecond range. Currently, NO changes after interventions are only estimated based on measured changes of nitrite and nitrate (members of the nitrate-nitrite-NO metabolic pathway). However precise, these measurements are rather difficult to interpret vis a vis actual NO changes, due to the naturally high baseline nitrite and nitrate levels that are several orders of magnitude higher than expected changes of NO itself. Therefore, the development of direct and simple methods that would allow one to detect NO directly is long overdue. This protocol addresses a potential use of platelets as a highly sensitive NO sensor in blood. It describes initial platelet rich plasma (PRP) and washed platelet preparations and the use of nitrite and deoxygenated red blood cells as NO generators. Phosphorylation of VASP at serine 239 (P-VASPSer239) is used to detect the presence of NO. The fact that VASP protein is highly expressed in platelets and that it is rapidly phosphorylated when NO is present leads to a unique opportunity to use this pathway to directly detect NO presence in blood.

Here, we present a protocol to address the potential use of platelets as a highly sensitive nitric oxide sensor in blood. It describes initial platelet preparation and the use of nitrite and deoxygenated red blood cells as nitric oxide generators.

Platelets are the blood components responsible for proper blood clotting. Their function is highly regulated by various pathways. One of the most potent ...

A New Best Practice for Validating Tail Vein Injections in Rat with Near-infrared-Labeled Agents

Intravenous (IV) administration of agents into the tail vein of rats can be both difficult and inconsistent. Optimizing tail vein injections is a key part of many experimental procedures where reagents need to be introduced directly into the bloodstream. Unwittingly, the injection can be subcutaneous, possibly altering the scientific outcomes. Utilizing a nanoemulsion-based biological probe with an incorporated near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) dye, this method offers the capability of imaging a successful tail vein injection in vivo. With the use of a NIRF imager, images are taken before and after the injection of the agent. An acceptable IV injection is then qualitatively or quantitatively determined based on the intensity of the NIRF signal at the site of injection.

Here we present a method to validate tail vein injections in rats by utilizing near-infrared fluorescence imaging data from dyes incorporated into agents or biological probes. The tail is imaged before and after the injection, the fluorescent signal is quantified, and an assessment of the injection quality is made.

Intravenous (IV) administration of agents into the tail vein of rats can be both difficult and inconsistent. Optimizing tail vein injections is a key part ...