Name: in vivo microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis
Uploaded: 2014-08-23T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis at JoVE.com

Vi tackar Birgit Westernstroeer för Centrum för reproduktiv medicin och andrologi vid universitetet i Münster för undervisning testikelmikroinjektion. Dessutom är vi tacksamma för Ursula Antkewitz och Petra Reckling för tekniskt stöd. Vi tackar den tyska Research Foundation (DFG) för att stödja detta arbete (WE2458 / 10-1). &#160;

Alla utförda djurförsök har godkänts av den lokala etiska kommittén (Lande für Landwirtschaft, Lebensmittelsicherheit und Fischerei, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Tyskland). 1. Plasmidberedning <ol><li> För plasmidberedning, använd plasmidrening kit (se Material tabell) eller liknande metoder med endotoxin borttagning buffert så att immunreaktioner av djuret kan undvikas. Följ anvisningarna i handboken. Anställ DDH 2 O att späda plasmiden lösning. </li><li> Eliminera skr?...

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Bioeng. 91, 363-367 (2001).</li><li>Umemoto, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+transfer+to+mouse+testes+by+electroporation+and+its+influence+on+spermatogenesis.">Gene transfer to mouse testes by electroporation and its influence on spermatogenesis.</a> J. Androl. 26, 264-271 (2005).</li><li>Muramatsu, T., Shibata, O., Ryoki, S., Ohmori, Y., Okumura, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Foreign+gene+expression+in+the+mouse+testis+by+localized+in+vivo+gene+transfer.">Foreign gene expression in the mouse testis by localized in vivo gene transfer.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 233, 45-49 (1997).</li><li>Hibbitt, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+gene+transfer+by+electroporation+allows+expression+of+a+fluorescent+transgene+in+hamster+testis+and+epididymal+sperm+and+has+no+adverse+effects+upon+testicular+integrity+or+sperm+quality.">In vivo gene transfer by electroporation allows expression of a fluorescent transgene in hamster testis and epididymal sperm and has no adverse effects upon testicular integrity or sperm quality.</a> Biol. Reprod. 74, 95-101 (2006).</li><li>Yamazaki, Y., Yagi, T., Ozaki, T., Imoto, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+gene+transfer+to+mouse+spermatogenic+cells+using+green+fluorescent+protein+as+a.">In vivo gene transfer to mouse spermatogenic cells using green fluorescent protein as a.</a> J. Exp. Zool. 286, 212-218 (2000).</li><li>Dhup, S., Majumdar, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transgenesis+via+permanent+integration+of+genes+in+repopulating+spermatogonial+cells+in+vivo.">Transgenesis via permanent integration of genes in repopulating spermatogonial cells in vivo.</a> Nat. Methods. 5, 601-603 (2008).</li><li>Huang, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+transfection+of+testicular+germ+cells+and+transgenesis+by+using+the+mitochondrially+localized+jellyfish+fluorescent+protein+gene.">In vivo transfection of testicular germ cells and transgenesis by using the mitochondrially localized jellyfish fluorescent protein gene.</a> FEBS Lett. 487, 248-251 (2000).</li><li>Majumdar, S. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+rapid+generation+of+transgenic+animals+to+evaluate+testis+genes+during+sexual+maturation.">A method for rapid generation of transgenic animals to evaluate testis genes during sexual maturation.</a> J. Reprod. Immunol. 83, 36-39 (2009).</li><li>Yomogida, K., Yagura, Y., Tadokoro, Y., Nishimune, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dramatic+expansion+of+germinal+stem+cells+by+ectopically+expressed+human+glial+cell+line-derived+neurotrophic+factor+in+mouse+Sertoli+cells.">Dramatic expansion of germinal stem cells by ectopically expressed human glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in mouse Sertoli cells.</a> Biol. Reprod. 69, 1303-1307 (2003).</li><li>Ike, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transient+expression+analysis+of+the+mouse+ornithine+decarboxylase+antizyme+haploid-specific+promoter+using+in+vivo+electroporation.">Transient expression analysis of the mouse ornithine decarboxylase antizyme haploid-specific promoter using in vivo electroporation.</a> FEBS Lett. 559, 159-164 (2004).</li><li>Gonzalez-Gonzalez, E., Lopez-Casas, P. P., Del, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+silencing+by+RNAi+in+mouse+Sertoli+cells.">Gene silencing by RNAi in mouse Sertoli cells.</a> Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 6, 29 (2008).</li><li>Tang, H., Kung, A., Goldberg, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+murine+lactate+dehydrogenase+C+(Ldhc)+gene+expression.">Regulation of murine lactate dehydrogenase C (Ldhc) gene expression.</a> Biol. Reprod. 78, 455-461 (2008).</li><li>Yomgogida, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mammalian+testis:+a+target+of+in+vivo+electroporation.">Mammalian testis: a target of in vivo electroporation.</a> Dev. Growth Differ. 50, 513-515 (2008).</li><li>Hayes, K. 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Forskning inom området för reproduktionsbiologi, särskilt inom området av manlig fertilitet och spermatogenes oundvikligen beroende av levande organismer. För att undersöka testikelfunktionen har ingen lämplig cellodling / in vitro-system etablerats kunna reflektera alla viktiga morfologiska förändringar från en diploid spermatogonium till en haploid mogen spermie 1,2. Således är ofta en nödvändig och som sådan ett värdefullt verktyg i manliga reproduktionsbiologi gen...

Däggdjur spermatogenes anses vara en sofistikerad process för självförnyande stamceller successivt genomgår mitos, meios och differentiering för att utvecklas till mogna haploid spermier. Dessa morfologiska förändringar iscensatt av olika celltyper och trots djupa försök, är det fortfarande omöjligt att efterlikna dessa processer i cellkultur 1,2. Därför forskning om spermatogenesen hittills bygger på levande organismer som in vivo-modeller. I allmänhet är genen funktionsstudier vanligtvis baserat på transgena djur. Emellertid alstra och upprätthålla denna typ av djurmodell är tidskrävande och kostnadsintensiv och helt genomarbetade. Detta tillskrivs det krävs långa avel att skapa och upprätthålla transgenen över generationerna. Dessutom är genmanipulation av hela organismen av den transgena eller knockout strategi benägna att orsaka fysiologiska nedsättningar när de riktar genes med viktiga funktioner i flera regioner, t.ex. utanför testiklarna eller systemiskt. Vidare är vissa övergående transfektionsmetoder förknippade med några avgörande nackdelar. Till exempel typiska nackdelarna med virusmedierad genöverföring är det möjligt provokation av immunreaktioner och kompletterande säkerhetsföreskrifter, medan lipofektion 3 och mikropartikelbombardemang 4 kan skada vävnad och är begränsade till en viss celldjup för tillräcklig transfektionseffektivitet. I kontrast, elektroporering (EP) som ett annat vanligt sätt att transient transfektion, tycks utgöra en lovande teknik för att möjliggöra in vivo-transfektion och konsekvent in vivo gen-analys. I allmänhet är EP hänvisas till som en dynamisk fenomen som beror på lokal transmembranspänning med följaktligen medierade porerna inom nanosekunder. Dessa luckor kan bibehållas under millisekunder, tillräcklig to ge tillgång till DNA, RNA eller små molekyler 5. När den pålagda spänningen är för hög, är vanligen övergående karaktär EP motverkas på grund av värmeproduktionen och induktion av alltför omfattande permeabilisering med åtföljande irreversibel skada på cellen 5. Här visar vi att elektroporation är ett effektivt och ekonomiskt transfektion system som är i stånd att utnyttjas för genetisk testis omvandling i syfte att belysa testikulära genprodukter egenskaper in vivo. Denna artikel tar upp beredning plasmid, mikroinjektion via efferenta kanalen och den efterföljande elektroporering av mus testiklar. Detta förfarande kan vara medlet för valet att uppnå snabb, specifik och effektiv transfektion av sädeskanalerna av mus testiklar in vivo för att undersöka processer av spermatogenesen.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="3">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>
			centrifuge
			</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>1-15 PK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Nanodrop</td>
			<td>ND-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>PC-10</td>
			<td>vertical capillary puller</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microinjection capillaries</td>
			<td>Clark</td>
			<td>GC100-10</td>
			<td>borosilicate standard wall</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micropipette beveler</td>
			<td>Bachofer</td>
			<td>Typ 462</td>
			<td>rotating disk beveler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>electroporator</td>
			<td>Nepagene</td>
			<td>CUY 21EDIT</td>
			<td>square wave electroporator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tweezer electrodes</td>
			<td>Nepagene</td>
			<td>CUY 650P5</td>
			<td>5 mm &#216; disk electrodes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stereo microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Stemi 2000-C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cold light source</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>KL 1500LCD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microinjection pump</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>Femtojet</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micromanipulator</td>
			<td>homemade</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>XYZ cross table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>surgical instruments</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>scissors, forceps, 
			needle holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fine forceps</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>Dumont #5, #7</td>
			<td>efferent ducts preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Michel clip applying stapler</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>Michel, 12029-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Michel suture clips</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>Michel, 12040-01</td>
			<td>7.5 x 1.75 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>surgical suture</td>
			<td>Catgut 00</td>
			<td>Catgut 
			Markenkirchen</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>syringe, with 30G needle</td>
			<td>B. Braun</td>
			<td>Omnican 40</td>
			<td>to load micropipette and 
			for anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid isolation kit</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>Cat. # A2495</td>
			<td>plasmid Midiprep</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid pEGFP-C1</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>Cat. #6084-1</td>
			<td>CMV-promoter + EGFP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid pDsRed2-N1</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>Cat. #6084-1</td>
			<td>CMV-promoter + DsRed2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fast Green dye</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F7258-25G</td>
			<td>for dilution in ddH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x PBS, pH 7.4</td>
			<td>Carl Roth</td>
			<td>3957.1</td>
			<td>NaCl [1.37 M]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6781.1</td>
			<td>KCl [27 mM]</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T106.2</td>
			<td>Na2HPO4+2H2O [100 mM]</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3904.1</td>
			<td>KH2PO4 [18 mM]</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Ketamin</td>
			<td>Serum Werk 
			Bernburg</td>
			<td>Urotamin</td>
			<td>mix in a rate 1:1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2% Xylazin</td>
			<td>Serum Werk 
			Bernburg</td>
			<td>Xylazin</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterilium</td>
			<td>Bode Chemie</td>
			<td>Sterillium</td>
			<td>disinfection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vet ointment</td>
			<td>S&#38;K Pharma 
			GmbH</td>
			<td>Kerato Biciron 5% 
			Augensalbe</td>
			<td>or similar to prevent 
			dryness of eyes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>To-Pro-3 iodide</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>T3605</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vivo microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis

Denna video och artikeln bidraget ger en heltäckande beskrivning av mikroinjektion och elektroporering av mus testiklar in vivo. Denna särskilda transfektion teknik för testikel musceller tillåter studiet av unika processer i spermatogenesen. Följande protokoll är inriktat på transfektion av testikulära musceller med plasmidkonstruktioner. Specifikt använde vi reportern vektor pEGFP-C1, som uttrycker förbättrade grönt fluorescerande protein (EGFP) och även pDsRed2-N1 vektor som uttrycker röd fluorescerande protein (DsRed2). Båda kodade reportergener var under kontroll av den humana cytomegalovirus omedelbara-tidiga promotorn (CMV). För att utföra genöverföring till mus testiklar, är reporter plasmidkonstruktioner injiceras i testiklarna hos levande möss. För detta ändamål är testiklarna på en nedsövd djur exponerad och platsen för mikroinjektion är beredd. Vår bästa ställe förinjektion är den efferenta kanal med slutligen kopplas rete testis som den anatomiska transportväg av spermier mellan testiklarna och bitestiklarna. På detta sätt är fyllningen av sädeskanalerna efter mikroinjektion utmärkt förvaltas och kontrolleras på grund av användningen av färgade DNA-lösningar. Efter att ha observerat en tillräcklig fyllning av testiklarna av dess färgade tubuli struktur, är orgeln electroporated. Detta möjliggör överföring av DNA-lösningen in i de testikulära celler. Efter 3 dagars inkubation, är testiklarna bort och undersöks i mikroskop för grön eller röd fluorescens, illustrerar transfektion framgång. I allmänhet kan detta protokoll användas för att leverera DNA- eller RNA- konstruktioner i levande mus testiklar för att (över) uttryckliga eller riva gener, underlättar in vivo geners funktion analys. Dessutom är den lämplig för att studera reporterkonstruktioner eller förmodade gen regulatory element. Således de främsta fördelarna med elektrotekniken är snabb prestanda i kombination med låg ansträngning samt den moderata teknisk utrustning och kompetens som krävs i förhållande till alternativa tekniker.

Den experimentella inställning för att utföra mikroinjektion och elektroporering av mus testiklar in vivo eftersom den används i enlighet med protokollet illustreras i figur 1. Även om det är möjligt att få industriellt tillverkade mikropipetter, vi föredrog att skapa våra egna pipetter genom att dra (Figur 1A ) och avfasning (Figur 1B) glaskapillärer så att de försett våra behov. Utrustning för mikroinjektion och elektroporering illustreras i <s...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis at JoVE.com

In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis

I denna artikel beskrivs mikroinjektion och elektroporering av mus testiklar in vivo som en transfektion teknik för testikel musceller att studera unika processer av spermatogenesen. Den presenterade protokollet involverar stegen att preparatet glaskapillär, mikroinjektion via efferenta kanalen, och transfektering genom elektroporation.

In vivo mikroinjektion och elektroporation av Mus Testikel

This video and article contribution gives a comprehensive description of microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis in vivo. This particular ...

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Biology

In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis

In Utero Intraventricular Injection and Electroporation of E15 Mouse Embryos

In-utero in-vivo injection and electroporation of the embryonic mouse neocortex provides a powerful tool for the manipulation of individual progenitors lining the walls of the lateral ventricle. This technique is now widely used to study the processes involved in corticogenesis by over-expressing or knocking down genes and observing the effects on cellular proliferation, migration, and differentiation. In comparison to traditional knockout strategies, in-utero electroporation provides a rapid means to manipulate a population of cells during a specific temporal window. In this video protocol we outline the experimental methodology for preparing mice for surgery, exposing the uterine horns through laporatomy, injecting DNA into the lateral ventricles of the developing embryo, electroporating DNA into the progenitors lining the lateral wall, and caring for animals post-surgery. Our laboratory uses this protocol for surgeries on E13-E16 mice, however, it is most commonly performed at E15, as shown in this video. 

In utero Intraventrikulär direktinsprutning och elektroporation av E15 musembryon

In-utero in-vivo injection and electroporation of the embryonic mouse neocortex provides a powerful tool for the manipulation of individual progenitors ...

Single Cell Electroporation in vivo within the Intact Developing Brain

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing the delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact tissue, including in vivo preparations. The distinct advantage of this technique is that experimental manipulations may be performed on individual cells while leaving the surrounding tissue unaltered, thereby distinguishing cell-autonomous effects from those resulting from global treatments. When combined with advanced in vivo imaging techniques, SCE of fluorescent markers permits direct visualization of cellular morphology, cell growth, and intracellular events over timescales ranging from seconds to days. While this technique is used in a variety of in vivo and ex vivo preparations, we have optimized this technique for use in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. In this video article, we detail the procedure for SCE of a fluorescent dye or plasmid DNA into neurons within the intact brain of the albino Xenopus tadpole. We also discuss methods to optimize yield, and show examples of live two-photon fluorescence imaging of neurons fluorescently labeled by SCE.

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact tissue, including in vivo preparations. Here we detail the procedure for SCE of a fluorescent dye or plasmid DNA into neurons within the intact brain of the Xenopus laevis tadpole.

Single Cell elektroporation in vivo i den intakta växande hjärnan

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing the delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact ...

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell differentiation, axon guidance, retinotopic organization and synapse formation[1]. One drawback is the inability to efficiently and reliably manipulate gene expression in RGCs in vivo, especially in the otherwise accessible murine visual pathways. Transgenic mice can be used to manipulate gene expression, but this approach is often expensive, time consuming, and can produce unwanted side effects. In chick, in ovo electroporation is used to manipulate gene expression in RGCs for examining retina and RGC development. Although similar electroporation techniques have been developed in neonatal mouse pups[2], adult rats[3], and embryonic murine retinae in vitro[4], none of these strategies allow full characterization of RGC development and axon projections in vivo. To this end, we have developed two applications of electroporation, one in utero and the other ex vivo, to specifically target embryonic murine RGCs[5, 6]. 
With in utero retinal electroporation, we can misexpress or downregulate specific genes in RGCs and follow their axon projections through the visual pathways in vivo, allowing examination of guidance decisions at intermediate targets, such as the optic chiasm, or at target regions, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus. Perturbing gene expression in a subset of RGCs in an otherwise wild-type background facilitates an understanding of gene function throughout the retinal pathway. Additionally, we have developed a companion technique for analyzing RGC axon growth in vitro. We electroporate embryonic heads ex vivo, collect and incubate the whole retina, then prepare explants from these retinae several days later. Retinal explants can be used in a variety of in vitro assays in order to examine the response of electroporated RGC axons to guidance cues or other factors. In sum, this set of techniques enhances our ability to misexpress or downregulate genes in RGCs and should greatly aid studies examining RGC development and axon projections.

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

Here we present two techniques for manipulating gene expression in murine retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) by in utero and ex vivo electroporation. These techniques enable one to examine how alterations in gene expression affect RGC development, axon guidance, and functional properties.

In utero och ex vivo elektroporation för genuttryck i Mus Retinal ganglion celler

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell ...

DNA Transfection of Mammalian Skeletal Muscles using In Vivo Electroporation

A growing interest in cell biology is to express transgenically modified forms of essential proteins (e.g. fluorescently tagged constructs and/or mutant variants) in order to investigate their endogenous distribution and functional relevance. An interesting approach that has been implemented to fulfill this objective in fully differentiated cells is the in vivo transfection of plasmids by various methods into specific tissues such as liver1, skeletal muscle2,3, and even the brain4. We present here a detailed description of the steps that must be followed in order to efficiently transfect genetic material into fibers of the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) and interosseus (IO) muscles of adult mice using an in vivo electroporation approach. The experimental parameters have been optimized so as to maximize the number of muscle fibers transfected while minimizing tissue damages that may impair the quality and quantity of the proteins expressed in individual fibers. We have verified that the implementation of the methodology described in this paper results in a high yield of soluble proteins, i.e. EGFP and ECFP3, calpain, FKBP12, &beta;2a-DHPR, etc. ; structural proteins, i.e. minidystrophin and &alpha;-actinin; and membrane proteins, i.e. &alpha;1s-DHPR, RyR1, cardiac Na/Ca2+ exchanger , NaV1.4 Na channel, SERCA1, etc., when applied to FDB, IO and other muscles of mice and rats. The efficient expression of some of these proteins has been verified with biochemical3 and functional evidence5. However, by far the most common confirmatory approach used by us are standard fluorescent microscopy and 2-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM), which permit to identify not only the overall expression, but also the detailed intracellular localization, of fluorescently tagged protein constructs. The method could be equally used to transfect plasmids encoding for the expression of proteins of physiological relevance (as shown here), or for interference RNA (siRNA) aiming to suppress the expression of normally expressed proteins (not tested by us yet). It should be noted that the transfection of FDB and IO muscle fibers is particularly relevant for the investigation of mammalian muscle physiology since fibers enzymatically dissociated from these muscles are currently one of the most suitable models to investigate basic mechanisms of excitability and excitation-contraction coupling under current or voltage clamp conditions2,6-8.

DNA Transfection of Mammalian Skeletal Muscles using In Vivo Electroporation

We describe detailed procedures for the efficient transfection of plasmid DNA into the fibers of foot muscles of live mice using electroporation and the subsequent visualization of protein expression using fluorescence microscopy.

DNA Transfektion av däggdjurs Skelettmuskulatur hjälp In Vivo Elektroporation

 A growing interest in cell biology is to express transgenically modified forms of essential proteins (e.g. fluorescently tagged constructs and/or mutant ...

In vivo Imaging and Therapeutic Treatments in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Ovarian Cancer

Human cancer and response to therapy is better represented in orthotopic animal models. This paper describes the development of an orthotopic mouse model of ovarian cancer, treatment of cancer via oral delivery of drugs, and monitoring of tumor cell behavior in response to drug treatment in real time using in vivo imaging system. In this orthotopic model, ovarian tumor cells expressing luciferase are applied topically by injecting them directly into the mouse bursa where each ovary is enclosed. Upon injection of D-luciferin, a substrate of firefly luciferase, luciferase-expressing cells generate bioluminescence signals. This signal is detected by the in vivo imaging system and allows for a non-invasive means of monitoring tumor growth, distribution, and regression in individual animals. Drug administration via oral gavage allows for a maximum dosing volume of 10 mL/kg body weight to be delivered directly to the stomach and closely resembles delivery of drugs in clinical treatments. Therefore, techniques described here, development of an orthotopic mouse model of ovarian cancer, oral delivery of drugs, and in vivo imaging, are useful for better understanding of human ovarian cancer and treatment and will improve targeting this disease.

In vivo Imaging and Therapeutic Treatments in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Ovarian Cancer

Orthotopic animal models of ovarian cancer replicate better human disease and therefore enhance our understanding of cancer progression and tumor response to therapy. A mouse model receives an intrabursal injection of luciferase-expressing ovarian tumor cells. Treatment is administered via oral gavage. Tumor growth is monitored by in vivo imaging system.

In vivo Imaging och terapeutiska behandlingar i en Orthotopic musmodell av äggstockscancer

Human cancer and response to therapy is better represented in orthotopic animal models.  This paper describes the development of an orthotopic mouse model ...

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1. Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a wide range of cytotoxic stresses. These insults initiate signaling cascades that ultimately cause the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytoplasm2. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a key event that triggers the rapid activation of caspases, the key cellular proteases which ultimately execute cell death3-4.
The pathway of apoptosis is regulated at points upstream and downstream of cytochrome c release from mitochondria5. In order to study the post-mitochondrial regulation of caspase activation, many investigators have turned to direct cytoplasmic microinjection of holocytochrome c (heme-attached) protein into cells6-9. Cytochrome c is normally localized to the mitochondria where attachment of a heme group is necessary to enable it to activate apoptosis10-11. Therefore, to directly activate caspases, it is necessary to inject the holocytochrome c protein instead of its cDNA, because while the expression of cytochrome c from cDNA constructs will result in mitochondrial targeting and heme attachment, it will be sequestered from cytosolic caspases. Thus, the direct cytosolic microinjection of purified heme-attached cytochrome c protein is a useful tool to mimic mitochondrial cytochrome c release and apoptosis without the use of toxic insults which cause cellular and mitochondrial damage.
In this article, we describe a method for the microinjection of cytochrome c protein into cells, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and primary sympathetic neurons as examples. While this protocol focuses on the injection of cytochrome c for investigations of apoptosis, the techniques shown here can also be easily adapted for microinjection of other proteins of interest.

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

In this protocol, we describe the direct cytoplasmic microinjection of cytochrome c protein into fibroblasts and primary sympathetic neurons. This technique allows for the introduction of cytochrome c protein into the cytoplasm of cells and mimics the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which occurs during apoptosis.

Aktivering av apoptos genom cytoplasmiska mikroinjektion av cytokrom C</em

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1.  Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a ...

Mouse Oocyte Microinjection, Maturation and Ploidy Assessment

Mistakes in chromosome segregation lead to aneuploid cells. In somatic cells, aneuploidy is associated with cancer but in gametes, aneuploidy leads to infertility, miscarriages or developmental disorders like Down syndrome. Haploid gametes form through species-specific developmental programs that are coupled to meiosis. The first meiotic division (MI) is unique to meiosis because sister chromatids remain attached while homologous chromosomes are segregated. For reasons not fully understood, this reductional division is prone to errors and is more commonly the source of aneuploidy than errors in meiosis II (MII) or than errors in male meiosis 1,2. 
In mammals, oocytes arrest at prophase of MI with a large, intact germinal vesicle (GV; nucleus) and only resume meiosis when they receive ovulatory cues. Once meiosis resumes, oocytes complete MI and undergo an asymmetric cell division, arresting again at metaphase of MII. Eggs will not complete MII until they are fertilized by sperm. Oocytes also can undergo meiotic maturation using established in vitro culture conditions 3. Because generation of transgenic and gene-targeted mouse mutants is costly and can take long periods of time, manipulation of female gametes in vitro is a more economical and time-saving strategy. 
Here, we describe methods to isolate prophase-arrested oocytes from mice and for microinjection. Any material of choice may be introduced into the oocyte, but because meiotically-competent oocytes are transcriptionally silent 4,5 cRNA, and not DNA, must be injected for ectopic expression studies. To assess ploidy, we describe our conditions for in vitro maturation of oocytes to MII eggs. Historically, chromosome-spreading techniques are used for counting chromosome number 6. This method is technically challenging and is limited to only identifying hyperploidies. Here, we describe a method to determine hypo-and hyperploidies using intact eggs 7-8. This method uses monastrol, a kinesin-5 inhibitor, that collapses the bipolar spindle into a monopolar spindle 9 thus separating chromosomes such that individual kinetochores can readily be detected and counted by using an anti-CREST autoimmune serum. Because this method is performed in intact eggs, chromosomes are not lost due to operator error.

Oocytes are prone to aneuploidy due to errors in chromosome segregation during meiotic maturation. Aneuploid eggs can cause infertility, miscarriages or developmental disorders like Down syndrome. Here, we describe methods to introduce materials of choice into oocytes and methods to study meiotic maturation and assess ploidy.

Mus Oocyte mikroinjektion, mognad och ploidi bedömning

Mistakes in chromosome segregation lead to aneuploid cells.  In somatic cells, aneuploidy is associated with cancer but in gametes, aneuploidy leads to ...

Germ Cell Transplantation and Testis Tissue Xenografting in Mice

Germ cell transplantation was developed by Dr. Ralph Brinster and colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania in 19941,2. These ground-breaking studies showed that microinjection of germ cells from fertile donor mice into the seminiferous tubules of infertile recipient mice results in donor-derived spermatogenesis and sperm production by the recipient animal2. The use of donor males carrying the bacterial &beta;-galactosidase gene allowed identification of donor-derived spermatogenesis and transmission of the donor haplotype to the offspring by recipient animals1. Surprisingly, after transplantation into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, transplanted germ cells were able to move from the luminal compartment to the basement membrane where spermatogonia are located3. It is generally accepted that only SSCs are able to colonize the niche and re-establish spermatogenesis in the recipient testis. Therefore, germ cell transplantation provides a functional approach to study the stem cell niche in the testis and to characterize putative spermatogonial stem cells. To date, germ cell transplantation is used to elucidate basic stem cell biology, to produce transgenic animals through genetic manipulation of germ cells prior to transplantation4,5, to study Sertoli cell-germ cell interaction6,7, SSC homing and colonization3,8, as well as SSC self-renewal and differentiation9,10.
Germ cell transplantation is also feasible in large species11. In these, the main applications are preservation of fertility, dissemination of elite genetics in animal populations, and generation of transgenic animals as the study of spermatogenesis and SSC biology with this technique is logistically more difficult and expensive than in rodents. Transplantation of germ cells from large species into the seminiferous tubules of mice results in colonization of donor cells and spermatogonial expansion, but not in their full differentiation presumably due to incompatibility of the recipient somatic cell compartment with the germ cells from phylogenetically distant species12. An alternative approach is transplantation of germ cells from large species together with their surrounding somatic compartment. We first reported in 2002, that small fragments of testis tissue from immature males transplanted under the dorsal skin of immunodeficient mice are able to survive and undergo full development with the production of fertilization competent sperm13. Since then testis tissue xenografting has been shown to be successful in many species and emerged as a valuable alternative to study testis development and spermatogenesis of large animals in mice14.

Protocols for germ cell transplantation and testis tissue xenografting are described. Germ cell transplantation results in donor-derived spermatogenesis in recipient testes and represents a functional reconstitution assay for identification of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). Testis tissue xenografting reproduces testis development and spermatogenesis of various donor species in recipient mice.

Könscell Transplantation och testiklar Tissue Xenografting hos möss

Germ cell transplantation was developed by Dr. Ralph Brinster and colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania in 19941,2. These ground-breaking studies ...

In vivo Electroporation of Morpholinos into the Adult Zebrafish Retina

Many devastating inherited eye diseases result in progressive and irreversible blindness because humans cannot regenerate dying or diseased retinal neurons. In contrast, the adult zebrafish retina possesses the robust ability to spontaneously regenerate any neuronal class that is lost in a variety of different retinal damage models, including retinal puncture, chemical ablation, concentrated high temperature, and intense light treatment 1-8. Our lab extensively characterized regeneration of photoreceptors following constant intense light treatment and inner retinal neurons after intravitreal ouabain injection 2, 5, 9. In all cases, resident M&uuml;ller glia re-enter the cell cycle to produce neuronal progenitors, which continue to proliferate and migrate to the proper retinal layer, where they differentiate into the deficient neurons. 
	We characterized five different stages during regeneration of the light-damaged retina that were highlighted by specific cellular responses. We identified several differentially expressed genes at each stage of retinal regeneration by mRNA microarray analysis 10. Many of these genes are also critical for ocular development. To test the role of each candidate gene/protein during retinal regeneration, we needed to develop a method to conditionally limit the expression of a candidate protein only at times during regeneration of the adult retina. 
	Morpholino oligos are widely used to study loss of function of specific proteins during the development of zebrafish, Xenopus, chick, mouse, and tumors in human xenografts 11-14. These modified oligos basepair with complementary RNA sequence to either block the splicing or translation of the target RNA. Morpholinos are stable in the cell and can eliminate or "knockdown" protein expression for three to five days 12. 
	Here, we describe a method to efficiently knockdown target protein expression in the adult zebrafish retina. This method employs lissamine-tagged antisense morpholinos that are injected into the vitreous of the adult zebrafish eye. Using electrode forceps, the morpholino is then electroporated into all the cell types of the dorsal and central retina. Lissamine provides the charge on the morpholino for electroporation and can be visualized to assess the presence of the morpholino in the retinal cells. 
	Conditional knockdown in the retina can be used to examine the role of specific proteins at different times during regeneration. Additionally, this approach can be used to study the role of specific proteins in the undamaged retina, in such processes as visual transduction and visual processing in second order neurons.

In vivo Electroporation of Morpholinos into the Adult Zebrafish Retina

A method to conditionally knockdown a target protein&#x2019;s expression in the adult zebrafish retina is described, which involves intravitreally injecting antisense morpholinos and electroporating them into the retina. The resulting protein is knocked down for several days, which allows testing the protein&#x2019;s role in the regenerating or intact retina.

In vivo elektroporering av Morpholinos i Adult Zebrafish Retina

Many devastating inherited eye diseases result in progressive and irreversible blindness because humans cannot regenerate dying or diseased retinal ...

In vivo Electroporation of Morpholinos into the Regenerating Adult Zebrafish Tail Fin

Certain species of urodeles and teleost fish can regenerate their tissues. Zebrafish have become a widely used model to study the spontaneous regeneration of adult tissues, such as the heart1, retina2, spinal cord3, optic nerve4, sensory hair cells5, and fins6.
The zebrafish fin is a relatively simple appendage that is easily manipulated to study multiple stages in epimorphic regeneration. Classically, fin regeneration was characterized by three distinct stages: wound healing, blastema formation, and fin outgrowth. After amputating part of the fin, the surrounding epithelium proliferates and migrates over the wound. At 33 &deg;C, this process occurs within six hours post-amputation (hpa, Figure 1B)6,7. Next, underlying cells from different lineages (ex. bone, blood, glia, fibroblast) re-enter the cell cycle to form a proliferative blastema, while the overlying epidermis continues to proliferate (Figure 1D)8. Outgrowth occurs as cells proximal to the blastema re-differentiate into their respective lineages to form new tissue (Figure 1E)8. Depending on the level of the amputation, full regeneration is completed in a week to a month.
The expression of a large number of gene families, including wnt, hox, fgf, msx, retinoic acid, shh, notch, bmp, and activin-betaA genes, is up-regulated during specific stages of fin regeneration9-16. However, the roles of these genes and their encoded proteins during regeneration have been difficult to assess, unless a specific inhibitor for the protein exists13, a temperature-sensitive mutant exists or a transgenic animal (either overexpressing the wild-type protein or a dominant-negative protein) was generated7,12. We developed a reverse genetic technique to quickly and easily test the function of any gene during fin regeneration.
Morpholino oligonucleotides are widely used to study loss of specific proteins during zebrafish, Xenopus, chick, and mouse development17-19. Morpholinos basepair with a complementary RNA sequence to either block pre-mRNA splicing or mRNA translation. We describe a method to efficiently introduce fluorescein-tagged antisense morpholinos into regenerating zebrafish fins to knockdown expression of the target protein. The morpholino is micro-injected into each blastema of the regenerating zebrafish tail fin and electroporated into the surrounding cells. Fluorescein provides the charge to electroporate the morpholino and to visualize the morpholino in the fin tissue.
This protocol permits conditional protein knockdown to examine the role of specific proteins during regenerative fin outgrowth. In the Discussion, we describe how this approach can be adapted to study the role of specific proteins during wound healing or blastema formation, as well as a potential marker of cell migration during blastema formation.

In vivo Electroporation of Morpholinos into the Regenerating Adult Zebrafish Tail Fin

We describe a method to conditionally knockdown the expression of a target protein during adult zebrafish fin regeneration. This technique involves micro-injecting and electroporating antisense oligonucleotide morpholinos into fin tissue, which allows testing the protein&#x2019;s role in various stages of fin regeneration, including wound healing, blastema formation, and regenerative outgrowth.

In vivo Elektroporering av Morpholinos i Regenerating Adult Zebrafish stjärtfenan

Certain species of urodeles and teleost fish can regenerate their tissues. Zebrafish have become a widely used model to study the spontaneous regeneration ...