We would like to thank the whole Service of Neuroradiology. We would like to thank Lis Prussen for her work in the library.

NOTE: This protocol follows the guidelines of the Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg in Luxembourg.
1. Preparation of Diffusion Tensor Imaging for the Visual Pathway for Neurosurgery and Follow Up
<ol style="margin-left: 40px;">
	<li>Perform an MRI-scan at least one day before surgery strictly axial using 32 gradient directions and one b0-image. Keep in close touch with the neuroradiology unit at any moment. 
	NOTE: Make clear to the neuroradiologist that the images after surgery are the same as those before the operation.</li>
	<li>Using a 3-Tesla MRI, perform a 3DT1-weighted and DTI-sequence scans. Perform a 3DT1-weighted sequence after surgery as well.</li>
</ol>
2. Using the Planning Station
<ol>
	<li>Transfer the T2-weighted, 3DT1-weighted and DTI-sequence scan data to digital imaging and communications in medicine (DICOM). This procedure takes up to 7 min. 
	NOTE: Don`t stop the procedure before having transferred all the sequences. It is possible to stop and continue later depending on the date of surgery.</li>
	<li>Open the surgical navigation system program. Click on File and then on Import DICOM. Repeat this procedure three times for all the sequences mentioned above.
	<ol>
		<li>Click Add to view. Add every sequence separately. Don`t try to proceed with View.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Click on Tools. Open DTI Tensor preparation. Observe a new window in the middle of the screen.</li>
	<li>Complete the following four steps.
	<ol>
		<li>Perform Gradient Assignment as the first step.
		<ol>
			<li>Change the b-value from 1,000 to 800 s/mm&#178; on the bottom right of the window.</li>
			<li>Adjust the Threshold on the top right of the window. Do it manually by simply writing a number or moving a cursor. 20 might be an acceptable value. It is a personal experience and it is not mandatory.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Perform Gradient Registration as the second step.
		<ol>
			<li>Click the button All Auto. This procedure takes up to 5 min.</li>
			<li>Click Verify All Registrations. Without verifying the registrations it is not possible to continue.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Perform Coregistration as the third step.
		<ol>
			<li>Coregister MR1 and b0 MR2 images manually. In the end Verify All Registrations. 
			NOTE: It is possible to perform this step automatically. However, the results may not be always satisfactory in the end.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Perform Tensor computation as the fourth and last step,
		<ol>
			<li>Make sure FA / DEC / ADC are on. If not click ON.</li>
			<li>Click on Compute. This procedure will take only some seconds.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Save all the data and continue with fibertracking. Do not stop without saving everything.</li>
</ol>
3. Fibertracking
NOTE: Anatomic knowledge of the visual pathway is very important for the successful result.
<ol style="margin-left: 40px;">
	<li>Prepare to find the three important points where the fibers have to go through.</li>
	<li>Determine the optic chiasm using anatomical knowledge.
	<ol>
		<li>Use a ROI as a starting point and let the fibers go through. ROIs are defined by the physician.</li>
		<li>Alternatively, segment the suspected region. Click Segmentation on the bottom left and another window will appear. Segmented areas are anatomically defined areas.
		<ol>
			<li>Paint the region manually. Scroll up and down to include the whole optic chiasm. Save the procedure and go back.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Track the fibers either from the region of interest or from the segmented area or both.</li>
		<li>The fibers reach the left geniculate nucleus (LGN), which is the second important point of the visual pathway. The maximum angle was 50. The risk of false tracts will rise with if the angle is too high.
		<ol>
			<li>There is a possibility to segment the LGN as shown with the optic chiasm and then track the fibers. After having segmented the optic chiasm, track fibers which run from the LGN and finish in the optic chiasm or vice versa.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Segment the visual cortex. Proceed like in the case of the optic chiasm. This might take some time as 3DT1-weighted image contains 160 slices.</li>
		<li>Track the fibers from the visual cortex to the LGN. It is possible to track them from the LGN to the visual cortex as well.</li>
		<li>If the visual cortex is invaded by a tumor or edema then use a region of interest in place of a segmented area and then let the fibers run in direction of the LGN. 
		NOTE: If the edema is segmented it sometimes might invade the visual cortex then then the visual cortex might not be able to segmented entirely because the computer can`t distinguish between them. That`s why it is necessary to put a ROI.</li>
		<li>Repeat everything for the other hemisphere.</li>
		<li>Start with the healthy hemisphere first. 
		NOTE: It is possible to start with the other one too but it might be easier to track the fibers of the healthy hemisphere first to become a first idea about the situation. It is not mandatory, it is only an advice.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Segment the cerebral lesion and the edema. Proceed as mentioned above in 3.2.2.
	<ol>
		<li>Assign a color for every segmented area or lesion in order to distinguish better.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Save the procedure after each step in case of unforeseen events or in case of an emergency.</li>
	<li>Export the entire data locally. It is possible to export it to the operating room directly but it isn`t recommended.
	<ol>
		<li>Press File and then Export 3D-Objects. Make sure to export only the Navigation Exam.</li>
		<li>Don`t export the Hybrid Exam.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Enter Cranial. Choose the right patient then press Stealthmerge. Choose 3DT1-weighted images as reference exam.</li>
	<li>Create a 3D-model and insert everything.</li>
	<li>Import the data in the operation room.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Fernandez-Miranda, J. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-Definition+Fiber+Tractography+of+the+Human+Brain:+Neuroanatomical+Validation+and+Neurosurgical+Applications.">High-Definition Fiber Tractography of the Human Brain: Neuroanatomical Validation and Neurosurgical Applications.</a> Neurosurgery. 71 (2), 430-453 (2012).</li><li>Alexander, D. C., Barker, G. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimal+imaging+parameters+for+fiber-orientation+estimation+in+diffusion+MRI.">Optimal imaging parameters for fiber-orientation estimation in diffusion MRI.</a> Neuroimage. 27 (2), 357-367 (2005).</li><li>Le Bihan, D., Poupon, C., Amadon, A., Lethimonnier, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Artifacts+and+pitfalls+in+diffusion+MRI.">Artifacts and pitfalls in diffusion MRI.</a> J Magn Reson Imaging. 24 (3), 478-488 (2006).</li><li>Abdullah, K. G., Lubelski, D., Nucifora, P. G., Brem, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+diffusion+tensor+imaging+in+glioma+resection.">Use of diffusion tensor imaging in glioma resection.</a> Neurosurg Focus. 34 (4), (2013).</li><li>Ota, T., Kawai, K., Kamada, K., Kin, T., Saito, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intraoperative+monitoring+of+cortically+recorded+visual+response+for+posterior+visual+pathway.">Intraoperative monitoring of cortically recorded visual response for posterior visual pathway.</a> J Neurosurg. 112, 285-294 (2010).</li><li>Gras-Combe, G., Moritz-Gasser, S., Herbet, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intraoperative+subcortical+electrical+mapping+of+optic+radiations+in+awake+surgery+for+glioma+involving+visual+pathways.">Intraoperative subcortical electrical mapping of optic radiations in awake surgery for glioma involving visual pathways.</a> J Neurosurg. 117 (3), 466-473 (2012).</li><li>Maruyama, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optic+radiation+tractography+integrated+into+simulated+treatment+planning+for+Gamma+Knife+surgery.">Optic radiation tractography integrated into simulated treatment planning for Gamma Knife surgery.</a> J Neurosurg. 107, 721-726 (2007).</li><li>Bérubé, J., McLaughlin, N., Bourgouin, P., Beaudoin, G., Bojanowski, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+tensor+imaging+analysis+of+long+association+bundles+in+the+presence+of+an+arteriovenous+malformation.">Diffusion tensor imaging analysis of long association bundles in the presence of an arteriovenous malformation.</a> J Neurosurg. 107 (3), 509-514 (2007).</li><li>Sun, G. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intraoperative+High-Field+Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging+Combined+With+Fiber+Tract+Neuronavigation-Guided+Resection+of+Cerebral+Lesions+Involving+Optic+Radiation.">Intraoperative High-Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging Combined With Fiber Tract Neuronavigation-Guided Resection of Cerebral Lesions Involving Optic Radiation.</a> Neurosurgery. 69 (5), 1070-1084 (2011).</li><li>Kamada, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+Monitoring+For+Visual+Pathway+Using+Real-Time+Visual+Evoked+Potentials+Aand+Optic-Radiation+Tractography.">Functional Monitoring For Visual Pathway Using Real-Time Visual Evoked Potentials Aand Optic-Radiation Tractography.</a> Neurosurgery. 57 (1 Suppl), 121-127 (2005).</li><li>Wu, W., Rigolo, L., O'Donnell, L. J., Norton, I., Shriver, S., Golby, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visual+Pathway+Study+Using+In+Vivo+Diffusion+Tensor+Imaging+Tractography+to+Complement+Classic+Anatomy.">Visual Pathway Study Using In Vivo Diffusion Tensor Imaging Tractography to Complement Classic Anatomy.</a> Neurosurgery. 70 (1 Suppl Operative), 145-156 (2012).</li><li>Stieglitz, L. H., L&#252;demann, W. O., Giordano, M., Raabe, A., Fahlbusch, R., Samii, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optic+Radiation+Fiber+Tracking+Using+Anteriorly+Angulated+Diffusion+Tensor+Imaging:+A+Tested+Algorithm+for+Quick+Application.">Optic Radiation Fiber Tracking Using Anteriorly Angulated Diffusion Tensor Imaging: A Tested Algorithm for Quick Application.</a> Neurosurgery. 68 (5), 1239-1251 (2011).</li><li>Hodaie, M., Quan, J., Chen, D. Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+Vivo+Visualization+of+Cranial+Nerve+Pathways+in+Humans+Using+Diffusion-Based+Tractography.">In Vivo Visualization of Cranial Nerve Pathways in Humans Using Diffusion-Based Tractography.</a> Neurosurgery. 66 (4), 788-795 (2010).</li><li>Perrin, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fiber+tracking+in+Q-ball+fields+using+regularized+particle+trajectories.">Fiber tracking in Q-ball fields using regularized particle trajectories.</a> Inf Process Med Imaging. 19, 52-63 (2005).</li><li>Wedeen, V. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+spectrum+magnetic+resonance+imaging+(DSI)+tractography+of+crossing+fibers.">Diffusion spectrum magnetic resonance imaging (DSI) tractography of crossing fibers.</a> Neuroimage. 41 (4), 1267-1277 (2008).</li><li>Yamamoto, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+Tensor+Fiber+Tractography+of+the+Optic+Radiation:+Analysis+with+6-,+12-,+40-,+and+81-+Directional+Motion-Probing+Gradients,+a+Preliminary+Study.">Diffusion Tensor Fiber Tractography of the Optic Radiation: Analysis with 6-, 12-, 40-, and 81- Directional Motion-Probing Gradients, a Preliminary Study.</a> AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 28 (1), 92-96 (2007).</li><li>Okada, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+Tensor+Fiber+Tractography+for+Arteriovenous+Malformations:+Quantitative+Analyses+to+Evaluate+the+Corticospinal+Tract+and+Optic+Radiation.">Diffusion Tensor Fiber Tractography for Arteriovenous Malformations: Quantitative Analyses to Evaluate the Corticospinal Tract and Optic Radiation.</a> AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 28 (6), 1107-1113 (2007).</li><li>Kuhnt, D., Bauer, M. H., Sommer, J., Merhof, D., Nimsky, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optic+Radiation+Fiber+Tractography+in+Glioma+Patients+Based+on+High+Angular+Resolution+Diffusion+Imaging+with+Compressed+Sensing+Compared+with+Diffusion+Tensor+Imaging+-+Initial+Experience.">Optic Radiation Fiber Tractography in Glioma Patients Based on High Angular Resolution Diffusion Imaging with Compressed Sensing Compared with Diffusion Tensor Imaging - Initial Experience.</a> PLoS One. 8 (7), e70973 (2013).</li><li>Basser, P. J., Pajevic, S., Pierpaoli, C., Duda, J., Aldroubi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+fiber+tractography+using+DT-MRI+data.">In vivo fiber tractography using DT-MRI data.</a> Magn Reson Med. 44 (4), 625-632 (2000).</li><li>Friman, O., Farneback, G., Westin, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Bayesian+approach+for+stochastic+white+matter+tractography.">A Bayesian approach for stochastic white matter tractography.</a> IEEE Trans Med Imaging. 25 (8), 965-978 (2006).</li><li>Mori, S., van Zijl, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fiber+tracking:+principles+and+strategies+-+a+technical+review.">Fiber tracking: principles and strategies - a technical review.</a> NMR Biomed. 15 (7-8), 468-480 (2002).</li><li>Alexander, D. C., Barker, G. J., Arridge, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+and+modeling+of+non-Gaussian+apparent+diffusion+coefficient+profiles+in+human+brain+data.">Detection and modeling of non-Gaussian apparent diffusion coefficient profiles in human brain data.</a> Magn Reson Med. 48 (2), 331-340 (2002).</li><li>Mori, S., Crain, B. J., Chacko, V. P., van Zijl, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+tracking+of+axonal+projections+in+the+brain+by+magnetic+resonance+imaging.">Three-dimensional tracking of axonal projections in the brain by magnetic resonance imaging.</a> Ann Neurol. 45, 265-269 (1999).</li><li>Conturo, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+neuronal+fiber+pathways+in+the+living+human+brain.">Tracking neuronal fiber pathways in the living human brain.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 96, 10422-10427 (1999).</li><li>Poupon, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regularization+of+diffusion-based+direction+maps+for+the+tracking+of+brain+white+matter+fascicles.">Regularization of diffusion-based direction maps for the tracking of brain white matter fascicles.</a> Neuroimage. 12, 184-195 (2000).</li><li>Parker, G. J., Haroon, H. A., Wheeler-Kingshott, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+framework+for+a+streamline-based+probabilistic+index+of+connectivity+(PICo)+using+a+structural+interpretation+of+MRI+diffusion+measurements.">A framework for a streamline-based probabilistic index of connectivity (PICo) using a structural interpretation of MRI diffusion measurements.</a> J Magn Reson Imaging. 18, 242-254 (2003).</li><li>Behrens, T. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-invasive+mapping+of+connections+between+human+thalamus+and+cortex+using+diffusion+imaging.">Non-invasive mapping of connections between human thalamus and cortex using diffusion imaging.</a> Nat Neurosci. 6, 750-757 (2003).</li><li>Reinges, M. H., Schoth, F., Coenen, V. A., Krings, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+of+postthalamic+visual+fiber+tracts+by+anisotropic+diffusion+weighted+MRI+and+diffusion+tensor+imaging:+principles+and+applications.">Imaging of postthalamic visual fiber tracts by anisotropic diffusion weighted MRI and diffusion tensor imaging: principles and applications.</a> European Journal of Radiology. 49, 91-104 (2004).</li><li>Sherbondy, A. J., Dougherty, R. F., Napel, S., Wandell, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identifying+the+human+optic+radiation+using+diffusion+imaging+and+fiber.">Identifying the human optic radiation using diffusion imaging and fiber.</a> J. Vis. 8 (10), (2008).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

DTI is a technique enabling the neurosurgeon to visualize white matter tracts in vivo8. The visual pathway is one of these tracts. Although this method provides physicians with new possibilities regarding the treatment of patients with lesions concerning eloquent regions of the brain we have to say that some limitations of this technique do still exist. The first and most obvious challenge is brain shift, which remains an issue under investigation4. After opening the dura mater and after ma...

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is used to portray WMT non-invasively in the human brain1. It has been used in the past decade to reduce the risk of harming eloquent areas of the brain during surgery1.
DTI was performed in fifty patients between March 2012 and January 2014 to portray the visual pathway. DTI might improve preservation of eloquent areas of the brain during surgery by providing important information about the anatomical location of white matter tracts. It has been incorporated into strategic planning for resection of complex brain lesions1. However, the portrayal of the visual pathway remains a challenge because there is no standard for the parameters of DTI, the placement of the seed volumes and interpretation of results12.
Different algorithms have been implemented so far 19-21. Some approaches concentrated on deterministic methods 19, 22-25. Others were using probabilistic methods,26,27,29. More recently, techniques using Q-ball tensor fields, diffusion spectral imaging and High Angular Resolution Diffusion Imaging (HARDI) are being used to depict white matter tracts among others the visual pathway 1,13-15,18 . Nevertheless, the necessary time for HARDI is significantly longer with 45 min, the software is not commercially available and emphasizes scientific applications18. The teaching period for HARDI seems to be longer than for DTI18.
The presented protocol is easy feasible and can be used for everyday routine in neurosurgical operations in order to avoid morbidity and improve the postoperative outcome. The additional time for this protocol is less than 9 min which is significantly faster than other protocols1,9,12,16. Acknowledging the fact that many sophisticated algorithms have been developed recently the paper restricts itself to the use of a commercially available and FDA approved software. However it is mandatory to take into account the limitations of this technique which are mentioned above.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="627">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">3-Tesla-MRI</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">General Electric</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">&#160;Signa LX version 9.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Surgical Navigation System Srogram</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Medtronic</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:173px;">9734478</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Surgical Navigation System Srogram</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Medtronic</td>
			<td style="width:173px;">4500810331&#160; 20016318</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

dti of the visual pathway - white matter tracts and cerebral lesions

DTI is a technique that identifies white matter tracts (WMT) non-invasively in healthy and non-healthy patients using diffusion measurements. Similar to visual pathways (VP), WMT are not visible with classical MRI or intra-operatively with microscope. DTI will help neurosurgeons to prevent destruction of the VP while removing lesions adjacent to this WMT. We have performed DTI on fifty patients before and after surgery between March 2012 to January 2014. To navigate we used a 3DT1-weighted sequence. Additionally, we performed a T2-weighted and DTI-sequences. The parameters used were, FOV: 200 x 200 mm, slice thickness: 2 mm, and acquisition matrix: 96 x 96 yielding nearly isotropic voxels of 2 x 2 x 2 mm. Axial MRI was carried out using a 32 gradient direction and one b0-image. We used Echo-Planar-Imaging (EPI) and ASSET parallel imaging with an acceleration factor of 2 and b-value of 800 s/mm&#178;. The scanning time was less than 9 min.
The DTI-data obtained were processed using a FDA approved surgical navigation system program which uses a straightforward fiber-tracking approach known as fiber assignment by continuous tracking (FACT). This is based on the propagation of lines between regions of interest (ROI) which is defined by a physician. A maximum angle of 50, FA start value of 0.10 and ADC stop value of 0.20 mm&#178;/s were the parameters used for tractography.
There are some limitations to this technique. The limited acquisition time frame enforces trade-offs in the image quality. Another important point not to be neglected is the brain shift during surgery. As for the latter intra-operative MRI might be helpful. Furthermore the risk of false positive or false negative tracts needs to be taken into account which might compromise the final results.

This protocol enables the physician to portray adequately the major parts of the VP. It can be used with a little amount of time in order to prevent damages in patients with cerebral lesions next to eloquent areas. Postoperative controls show also good results. VP is portrayed in Figure 7 after the patient was operated from a glioblastoma. Figure 2 shows the VP after recurrence of a glioblastoma. The authors recognize the fact of the difficulties presented by this protocol to depict the ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about DTI of the Visual Pathway - White Matter Tracts and Cerebral Lesions at JoVE.com

DTI of the Visual Pathway - White Matter Tracts and Cerebral Lesions

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was performed to try to depict the major parts of the visual pathway. The goal was to use an FDA approved standard commercial workstation which could be used for everyday routine in order to try to reduce postoperative damage of the visual pathway in the patients.

DTI is a technique that identifies white matter tracts (WMT) non-invasively in healthy and non-healthy patients using diffusion measurements. Similar to ...

dti-of-the-visual-pathway-white-matter-tracts-and-cerebral-lesions

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

13.9K Views.  Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was performed to try to depict the major parts of the visual pathway. The goal was to use an FDA approved standard commercial workstation which could be used for everyday routine in order to try to reduce postoperative damage of the visual pathway in the patients.

Video: DTI of the Visual Pathway - White Matter Tracts and Cerebral Lesions

The Application Of Permanent Middle Cerebral Artery Ligation in the Mouse

Focal cerebral ischemia is among the most common type of stroke seen in patients. Due to the clinical significance there has been a prolonged effort to develop suitable animal models to study the events that unfold during ischemic insult. These techniques include transient or permanent, focal or global ischemia models using many different animal models, with the most common being rodents.
The permanent MCA ligation method which is also referred as pMCAo in the literature is used extensively as a focal ischemia model in rodents 1-6. This method was originally described for rats by Tamura et al. in 1981 7. In this protocol a craniotomy was used to access the MCA and the proximal regions were occluded by electrocoagulation. The infarcts involve mostly cortical and sometimes striatal regions depending on the location of the occlusion. This technique is now well established and used in many laboratories 8-13. Early use of this technique led to the definition and description of &#x201C;infarct core&#x201D; and &#x201C;penumbra&#x201D; 14-16, and it is often used to evaluate potential neuroprotective compounds 10, 12, 13, 17. Although the initial studies were performed in rats, permanent MCA ligation has been used successfully in mice with slight modifications 18-20 .
This model yields reproducible infarcts and increased post-survival rates. Approximately 80% of the ischemic strokes in humans happen in the MCA area 21 and thus this is a very relevant model for stroke studies. Currently, there is a paucity of effective treatments available to stroke patients, and thus there is a need for good models to test potential pharmacological compounds and evaluate physiological outcomes. This method can also be used for studying intracellular hypoxia response mechanisms in vivo. 
Here, we present the MCA ligation surgery in a C57/BL6 mouse. We describe the pre-surgical preparation, MCA ligation surgery and 2,3,5 Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining for quantification of infarct volumes.

Middle cerebral artery (MCA) ligation is a technique to study focal cerebral ischemia in animal models. In this method, the middle cerebral artery is exposed by craniotomy and ligated by cauterization. This method gives highly reproducible infarct volumes and increased post-operative survival rates compared to other methods available.

Focal cerebral ischemia is among the most common type of stroke seen in patients. Due to the clinical significance there has been a prolonged effort to ...

Driving Simulation in the Clinic: Testing Visual Exploratory Behavior in Daily Life Activities in Patients with Visual Field Defects

Patients suffering from homonymous hemianopia after infarction of the posterior cerebral artery (PCA) report different degrees of constraint in daily life, despite similar visual deficits. We assume this could be due to variable development of compensatory strategies such as altered visual scanning behavior. Scanning compensatory therapy (SCT) is studied as part of the visual training after infarction next to vision restoration therapy. SCT consists of learning to make larger eye movements into the blind field enlarging the visual field of search, which has been proven to be the most useful strategy1, not only in natural search tasks but also in mastering daily life activities2. Nevertheless, in clinical routine it is difficult to identify individual levels and training effects of compensatory behavior, since it requires measurement of eye movements in a head unrestrained condition. Studies demonstrated that unrestrained head movements alter the visual exploratory behavior compared to a head-restrained laboratory condition3. Martin et al.4 and Hayhoe et al.5 showed that behavior demonstrated in a laboratory setting cannot be assigned easily to a natural condition. Hence, our goal was to develop a study set-up which uncovers different compensatory oculomotor strategies quickly in a realistic testing situation: Patients are tested in the clinical environment in a driving simulator. SILAB software (Wuerzburg Institute for Traffic Sciences GmbH (WIVW)) was used to program driving scenarios of varying complexity and recording the driver's performance. The software was combined with a head mounted infrared video pupil tracker, recording head- and eye-movements (EyeSeeCam, University of Munich Hospital, Clinical Neurosciences).
The positioning of the patient in the driving simulator and the positioning, adjustment and calibration of the camera is demonstrated. Typical performances of a patient with and without compensatory strategy and a healthy control are illustrated in this pilot study. Different oculomotor behaviors (frequency and amplitude of eye- and head-movements) are evaluated very quickly during the drive itself by dynamic overlay pictures indicating where the subjects gaze is located on the screen, and by analyzing the data. Compensatory gaze behavior in a patient leads to a driving performance comparable to a healthy control, while the performance of a patient without compensatory behavior is significantly worse. The data of eye- and head-movement-behavior as well as driving performance are discussed with respect to different oculomotor strategies and in a broader context with respect to possible training effects throughout the testing session and implications on rehabilitation potential.

Patients with visual deficits after stroke report about different constraints in daily life most likely due to variable compensatory strategies, which are difficult to differentiate in clinical routine. We present a clinical set-up which allows measurement of different compensatory head- and eye-movement-strategies and evaluating their effects on driving performance.

Patients suffering from homonymous hemianopia after infarction of the posterior cerebral artery (PCA) report different degrees of constraint in daily ...

Optimized System for Cerebral Perfusion Monitoring in the Rat Stroke Model of Intraluminal Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion

The translational potential of pre-clinical stroke research depends on the accuracy of experimental modeling. Cerebral perfusion monitoring in animal models of acute ischemic stroke allows to confirm successful arterial occlusion and exclude subarachnoid hemorrhage. Cerebral perfusion monitoring can also be used to study intracranial collateral circulation, which is emerging as a powerful determinant of stroke outcome and a possible therapeutic target. Despite a recognized role of Laser Doppler perfusion monitoring as part of the current guidelines for experimental cerebral ischemia, a number of technical difficulties exist that limit its widespread use. One of the major issues is obtaining a secure and prolonged attachment of a deep-penetration Laser Doppler probe to the animal skull. In this video, we show our optimized system for cerebral perfusion monitoring during transient middle cerebral artery occlusion by intraluminal filament in the rat. We developed in-house a simple method to obtain a custom made holder for twin-fibre (deep-penetration) Laser Doppler probes, which allow multi-site monitoring if needed. A continuous and prolonged monitoring of cerebral perfusion could easily be obtained over the intact skull.

Cerebral perfusion monitoring has been demonstrated to improve accuracy in ischemic stroke models. Technical difficulties often limit the use of this essential tool for cerebrovascular research. In this video, an optimized system is shown to obtain a single or multi-site hemodynamic monitoring during intraluminal middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats.

The translational potential of pre-clinical stroke research depends on the accuracy of experimental modeling. Cerebral perfusion monitoring in animal ...

Permanent Cerebral Vessel Occlusion via Double Ligature and Transection

Stroke is a leading cause of death, disability, and socioeconomic loss worldwide. The majority of all strokes result from an interruption in blood flow (ischemia) 1. Middle cerebral artery (MCA) delivers a great majority of blood to the lateral surface of the cortex 2, is the most common site of human stroke 3, and ischemia within its territory can result in extensive dysfunction or death 1,4,5. Survivors of ischemic stroke often suffer loss or disruption of motor capabilities, sensory deficits, and infarct. In an effort to capture these key characteristics of stroke, and thereby develop effective treatment, a great deal of emphasis is placed upon animal models of ischemia in MCA.
Here we present a method of permanently occluding a cortical surface blood vessel. We will present this method using an example of a relevant vessel occlusion that models the most common type, location, and outcome of human stroke, permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO). In this model, we surgically expose MCA in the adult rat and subsequently occlude via double ligature and transection of the vessel. This pMCAO blocks the proximal cortical branch of MCA, causing ischemia in all of MCA cortical territory, a large portion of the cortex. This method of occlusion can also be used to occlude more distal portions of cortical vessels in order to achieve more focal ischemia targeting a smaller region of cortex. The primary disadvantages of pMCAO are that the surgical procedure is somewhat invasive as a small craniotomy is required to access MCA, though this results in minimal tissue damage. The primary advantages of this model, however, are: the site of occlusion is well defined, the degree of blood flow reduction is consistent, functional and neurological impairment occurs rapidly, infarct size is consistent, and the high rate of survival allows for long-term chronic assessment.

Permanent Cerebral Vessel Occlusion via Double Ligature and Transection

We describe a highly reproducible method for the permanent occlusion of a rodent major cerebral blood vessel. This technique can be accomplished with very little peripheral damage, minimal blood loss, a high rate of long-term survival, and consistent infarct volume commensurate with the human clinical population.

Stroke is a leading cause of death, disability, and socioeconomic loss worldwide. The majority of all strokes result from an interruption in blood flow ...

Generation and 3-Dimensional Quantitation of Arterial Lesions in Mice Using Optical Projection Tomography

The generation and analysis of vascular lesions in appropriate animal models is a cornerstone of research into cardiovascular disease, generating important information on the pathogenesis of lesion formation and the action of novel therapies. Use of atherosclerosis-prone mice, surgical methods of lesion induction, and dietary modification has dramatically improved understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to disease development and the potential of new treatments.
Classically, analysis of lesions is performed ex vivo using 2-dimensional histological techniques. This article describes application of optical projection tomography (OPT) to 3-dimensional quantitation of arterial lesions. As this technique is non-destructive, it can be used as an adjunct to standard histological and immunohistochemical analyses.
Neointimal lesions were induced by wire-insertion or ligation of the mouse femoral artery whilst atherosclerotic lesions were generated by administration of an atherogenic diet to apoE-deficient mice.
Lesions were examined using OPT imaging of autofluorescent emission followed by complementary histological and immunohistochemical analysis. OPT clearly distinguished lesions from the underlying vascular wall. Lesion size was calculated in 2-dimensional sections using planimetry, enabling calculation of lesion volume and maximal cross-sectional area. Data generated using OPT were consistent with measurements obtained using histology, confirming the accuracy of the technique and its potential as a complement (rather than alternative) to traditional methods of analysis.
This work demonstrates the potential of OPT for imaging atherosclerotic and neointimal lesions. It provides a rapid, much needed ex vivo technique for the routine 3-dimensional quantification of vascular remodelling.

Ex vivo analysis of arterial lesions from animal models of cardiovascular disease classically relies on histological and immunohistochemical techniques. These provide 2-dimensional measurements in 3-dimensional lesions. This manuscript describes the generation of arterial lesions for quantitative analysis in 3-dimensions using optical projection tomography.

The generation and analysis of vascular lesions in appropriate animal models is a cornerstone of research into cardiovascular disease, generating ...

Quantitative Analysis and Characterization of Atherosclerotic Lesions in the Murine Aortic Sinus

Atherosclerosis is a disease of the large arteries and a major underlying cause of myocardial infarction and stroke. Several different mouse models have been developed to facilitate the study of the molecular and cellular pathophysiology of this disease. In this manuscript we describe specific techniques for the quantification and characterization of atherosclerotic lesions in the murine aortic sinus and ascending aorta. The advantage of this procedure is that it provides an accurate measurement of the cross-sectional area and total volume of the lesion, which can be used to compare atherosclerotic progression across different treatment groups. This is possible through the use of the valve leaflets as an anatomical landmark, together with careful adjustment of the sectioning angle. We also describe basic staining methods that can be used to begin to characterize atherosclerotic progression. These can be further modified to investigate antigens of specific interest to the researcher. The described techniques are generally applicable to a wide variety of existing and newly created dietary and genetically-induced models of atherogenesis.

We describe procedures to quantify and characterize atherosclerotic lesions in mouse models using precision sectioning of the aortic sinus and ascending aorta combined with histochemical and immunohistochemical analysis.

Atherosclerosis is a disease of the large arteries and a major underlying cause of myocardial infarction and stroke. Several different mouse models have ...

Dynamic Visual Tests to Identify and Quantify Visual Damage and Repair Following Demyelination in Optic Neuritis Patients

In order to follow optic neuritis patients and evaluate the effectiveness of their treatment, a handy, accurate and quantifiable tool is required to assess changes in myelination at the central nervous system (CNS). However, standard measurements, including routine visual tests and MRI scans, are not sensitive enough for this purpose. We present two visual tests addressing dynamic monocular and binocular functions which may closely associate with the extent of myelination along visual pathways. These include Object From Motion (OFM) extraction and Time-constrained stereo protocols. In the OFM test, an array of dots compose an object, by moving the dots within the image rightward while moving the dots outside the image leftward or vice versa. The dot pattern generates a camouflaged object that cannot be detected when the dots are stationary or moving as a whole. Importantly, object recognition is critically dependent on motion perception. In the Time-constrained Stereo protocol, spatially disparate images are presented for a limited length of time, challenging binocular 3-dimensional integration in time. Both tests are appropriate for clinical usage and provide a simple, yet powerful, way to identify and quantify processes of demyelination and remyelination along visual pathways. These protocols may be efficient to diagnose and follow optic neuritis and multiple sclerosis patients.
In the diagnostic process, these protocols may reveal visual deficits that cannot be identified via current standard visual measurements. Moreover, these protocols sensitively identify the basis of the currently unexplained continued visual complaints of patients following recovery of visual acuity. In the longitudinal follow up course, the protocols can be used as a sensitive marker of demyelinating and remyelinating processes along time. These protocols may therefore be used to evaluate the efficacy of current and evolving therapeutic strategies, targeting myelination of the CNS.

Object From Motion (OFM) and Time-constrained stereo protocols are sensitive tools to identify monocular and binocular dynamic visual function deficits, which are uniquely affected in optic neuritis patients. Furthermore, these tests may be used as quantitative noninvasive tools to assess the extent of myelination along visual pathways.

In order to follow optic neuritis patients and evaluate the effectiveness of their treatment, a handy, accurate and quantifiable tool is required to ...

A Versatile Murine Model of Subcortical White Matter Stroke for the Study of Axonal Degeneration and White Matter Neurobiology

Stroke affecting white matter accounts for up to 25% of clinical stroke presentations, occurs silently at rates that may be 5-10 fold greater, and contributes significantly to the development of vascular dementia. Few models of focal white matter stroke exist and this lack of appropriate models has hampered understanding of the neurobiologic mechanisms involved in injury response and repair after this type of stroke. The main limitation of other subcortical stroke models is that they do not focally restrict the infarct to the white matter or have primarily been validated in non-murine species. This limits the ability to apply the wide variety of murine research tools to study the neurobiology of white matter stroke. Here we present a methodology for the reliable production of a focal stroke in murine white matter using a local injection of an irreversible eNOS inhibitor. We also present several variations on the general protocol including two unique stereotactic variations, retrograde neuronal tracing, as well as fresh tissue labeling and dissection that greatly expand the potential applications of this technique. These variations allow for multiple approaches to analyze the neurobiologic effects of this common and understudied form of stroke.

Here we present methodology for the production of a focal stroke in murine white matter by local injection of an irreversible endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) inhibitor (L-Nio). Presented are two stereotactic variations, retrograde neuronal tracing, and fresh tissue labeling and dissection that expand the potential applications of this technique.

Stroke affecting white matter accounts for up to 25% of clinical stroke presentations, occurs silently at rates that may be 5-10 fold greater, and ...

Autologous Microfractured and Purified Adipose Tissue for Arthroscopic Management of Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus

In recent years, regenerative techniques have been increasingly studied and used to treat osteochondral lesions of the talus. In particular, several studies have focused their attention on mesenchymal stem cells derived from adipose tissue. Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) exhibit morphological characteristics and properties similar to other mesenchymal cells, and are able to differentiate into several cellular lines. Moreover, these cells are also widely available in the subcutaneous tissue, representing 10 - 30% of the normal body weight, with a concentration of 5,000 cells per gram of tissue.
In the presented technique, the first step involves harvesting ADSCs from the abdomen and a process of microfracture and purification; next, the surgical procedure is performed entirely arthroscopically, with less soft tissue dissection, better joint visualization, and a faster recovery compared with standard open procedures. Arthroscopy is characterized by a first phase in which the lesion is identified, isolated, and prepared with microperforations; the second step, performed dry, involves injection of adipose tissue at the level of the lesion.
Between January 2016 and September 2016, four patients underwent arthroscopic treatment of osteochondral lesion of the talus with microfractured and purified adipose tissue. All patients reported clinical improvement six months after surgery with no reported complications. Functional scores at the latest follow-up are encouraging and confirm that the technique provides reliable pain relief and improvements in patients with osteochondral lesion of the talus.

The aim of this study is to report a protocol for the arthroscopic treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus using microfractured and purified adipose-derived stem cells.

In recent years, regenerative techniques have been increasingly studied and used to treat osteochondral lesions of the talus. In particular, several ...

Assessment of Static Graviceptive Perception in the Roll-Plane using the Subjective Visual Vertical Paradigm

Vestibular disorders are among the most common syndromes in medicine. In recent years, new vestibular diagnostic systems have been introduced that allow the examination of all semicircular canals in the clinical setting. Assessment methods of the otolithic system, which is responsible for the perception of linear acceleration and perception of gravity, are far less in clinical use. There are several experimental approaches for measuring the perception of gravity. The most frequently used method is the determination of the subjective visual vertical. This is usually measured with the head in an upright position. We present here an assessment method for testing otolith function in the roll plane. The subjective visual vertical is measured in the head upright position as well as with head inclination of &#177; 15&#176; and &#177; 30&#176; in the roll plane. This extended functional paradigm is an easy-to-perform clinical test of otolith function and ensures increased information content for the detection of impaired graviceptive perception.

The perception of gravity is commonly determined by the subjective visual vertical in the head upright position. The additional assessment at head tilts of &#177; 15&#176; and &#177; 30&#176; in the roll plane ensures increased information content for the detection of impaired graviceptive perception.

Vestibular disorders are among the most common syndromes in medicine. In recent years, new vestibular diagnostic systems have been introduced that allow ...