Name: xenopus laevis as a model to identify translation impairment
Uploaded: 2015-09-27T14:00:00
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This research was supported by grant from INSERM, University of Lille 1, University of Lille 2, Regional Hospital Center of Lille (CHR de Lille). MCCH acknowledges supports from the Fondation de France and wishes to thank IRCL, Pr. Sonenberg for the gift of the V5-plasmids, Dr. Dissous (Pasteur Institute, Lille) for the gift of anti-GFP antibodies, UMS 3387 (University of Rennes) where Xenopus oocytes are purchased and Dr Taymans (JPArc, Lille) for critical reading of the manuscript text.

すべてのアフリカツメガエルの実験は、実験動物実験のための欧州共同体理事会のガイドライン（609分の86 / EEC）の規則に従ってリール1大学の動物施設で実施しました。動物プロトコルは、（アン実験ANIMALEノールパドカレ、CEEA 07/2010ComitéドールEthique）ローカルの機関審査委員会によって承認されました。 1.卵母細胞の取り扱い<ol><li>滅菌水1Lにトリカインメタ?...

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翻訳は、いくつかの神経変性疾患を含む多数のヒトの疾患の生理病理学に関与する機構です。パーキンソン病における例えばいくつかの報告は、遺伝性突然変異8,12,13に関連付けられている訳で障害を示唆しました。 いくつかの細胞モデルは、翻訳を勉強するために利用可能です。ここでは、eIF4G1とeIF4Eのパートナー8との間の相互作用を減少させるなどの...

タンパク質は、細胞の生命の本質的な要素であり、したがって、生物の大規模で。彼らは、それらの発現はmRNAのタンパク質への変換を可能にする翻訳の複雑な機構の結果であるなど構造、輸送、反応触媒、規制、遺伝子発現を含む細胞機能の大部分を確保します。翻訳に適応するために、開発および分化、老化、生理学的ストレスまたは病理学的徴候の間、細胞の必要に応じて遺伝子発現を調節するために様々な制御に供されます。 キャップ依存性、キャップ非依存の内部リボソーム侵入セグメント（IRES）の構造とキャップ非依存性翻訳エンハンサー（ 経由 ：翻訳は、3開始翻訳システムこれらのニーズに対応するために3段階（開始、伸長及び終了）やプレゼントに分割され、 ）CITE。 ほとんどの真核生物のmRNAはキャップDEPEに翻訳されていますタンパク質合成の間に認識機能として機能7-メチル5&#39;-三リン酸キャップ経由 ndentの方法。このキャップは、eIF4Eの、eIF4G1とeIF4AとeIF4F複合体の成分に結合します。ポリ（A）結合タンパク質（PABP）のような他のパートナーに関連する、EIF2-GTP-Metの-tRNAのMetは 、これらの翻訳開始因子は、mRNAを環状と認識1 AUG開始コドンまで、フォームに43S複合体をそのアクセス性を向上させることができます。このイベントは、翻訳開始、すなわち、翻訳の最初のステップの終わりに相当します。 キャップ非依存性翻訳は、例えば細胞増殖およびアポトーシスのために誘導するストレスの条件下で必須タンパク質をコードするmRNAによって使用されます。このメカニズムは、mRNA中の二次構造を伴う5&#39;-非翻訳領域（UTR）はIRES、eIF4Aおよび43S複合体と会合しeIF4G1のカルボキシ末端と呼ばれます。この43S開始前Cの結合IRESにomplexは、eIF4Eの係数2,3を必要とせずにキャップ依存性翻訳を開始します。 mRNAのUTR 4内に配置された構造をCITE を経由して最後に、まだよくわかっていない別の変換メカニズムは、ストレス条件下では、このキャップ非依存性翻訳活性をサポートしています。 彼らの開始段階によって異なる翻訳のこれらの様々なモードを通じ、翻訳が細胞の恒常性に重要な役割を果たし、これらのプロセスのいずれかの変化は、このように大規模な効果のために小さなと生物に影響を与えるだろう。実際、開始は、タンパク質へのmRNAの正しい翻訳プロセスを支配する律速段階であるため、多数のコントロールの対象と規制点5です。一つは欠陥があることが判明した場合、それは後者のために、またはこれらのプロセスのコンポーネントのためのものであるかどうか、それが細胞内で確立されたバランスを乱すますので、病理学的コンディにつながる可能性ション。この文脈では、翻訳因子における変異は、潜在的に、ウォルコット-Rallison症候群（PERK用EIF2AK3をコードする遺伝子）7に 、白matter&#39;（eIF2B1-5サブユニット）6を消失して、そのような`巣性白質脳症などの神経変性疾患を含むいくつかの疾患に関与してきましたパーキンソン病（eIF4G1のp.R1205H）8。それは、疾患の開発に、翻訳開始の一般的な方法で知識を高めるために、これらの変異体タンパク質の細胞および分子の試験を実施することが重要です。 これらの研究を行うためには、これらの変異の影響を観察するための最も適切なモデルを選択することが重要であるアフリカツメガエルの卵母細胞は、特によく、それらの生理学的および生化学的性質に適合されているアフリカツメガエル ：（細胞周期の位相G2にブロックされた）生理的な同期タンパク質合成の、大容量（200〜400 ngの/日/卵母細胞）、抽出されたOOCの数が多いです同じ動物からytes（800〜卵母細胞/女性）と、その操作を容易に細胞の大きさ（直径1.2〜1.4ミリメートル）。合成されたmRNAとアフリカツメガエル卵母細胞のマイクロインジェクションは簡単に翻訳手順を分析するために実施することができます。このビューでは、他の利点を提供します。減数分裂の進行の速さと翻訳のmRNAのマイクロインジェクション（〜24時間）の後を考えると、 アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞は、再構成された携帯（ 大腸菌から抽出された、小麦胚芽やウサギ網状赤血球...）システムmRNAがある、と比較して高速なシステムを表しています縮小翻訳速度とし、低速で翻訳。だから、mRNA中に導入された変異の効果はすぐに観測可能となり、簡単にいくつかの卵母細胞で研究。 アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞のもう一つの利点は、母性mRNAが潜伏しているとタンパク質翻訳がプロゲステロンの刺激の前にブロックされていることです。プロゲステロンの添加は、このように、翻訳の誘導を制御するための良い手段です。細胞質Polyadenylationは卵形成時に発生しません。これは、時間順にプロゲステロンで刺激した卵母細胞で卵成熟の間に始まり、開発の初期段階を通じて継続し、翻訳の異なる段階を研究するために使用することができます。 MOS mRNAのポリアデニル化が起こり、最初のうちであり、それはチャールズワースらに定義されている「早期成熟」遺伝子のクラスにオーロラA / Eg2の、ヒストン様B4 mRNAと属しています。（2004）9。そのようなサイクリンA1およびサイクリンB1と「後期」のmRNAの翻訳の誘導は、胚胞崩壊（GVBD）の頃に発生します。 MOS mRNAは、セリン/スレオニンプロテインキナーゼをコードします。それは間接的に卵成熟を活性化するMAPキナーゼカスケードを誘発するので、その翻訳は非常に重要です。実際には、プロゲステロンに応答して、MOS mRNAのポリアデニル化を目でオーロラA / Eg2の調節タンパク質および他のRNA結合タンパク質を伴うプロセスを介して促進されますMOS mRNAの電子3&#39;UTR。 MOS mRNAのこの増加したポリアデニル化は、次にMEK1を活性化するMOSタンパク質レベルの増加をもたらします。このプロセスは、細胞外シグナル調節キナーゼ2（ERK2）（ 図1）の活性化を媒介します。このシグナル伝達カスケードは、その後成熟M期促進因子、サイクリンBとはCdc2キナーゼによって形成された複合体をトリガーし、最終的に減数分裂再開につながることができます。 アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞したがって、そのようなMOSなどの母性mRNAの研究では、簡単にいくつかのモス、シグナリング成分もGVBD率の決意を含めての翻訳への効率的なポリアデニル化のいくつかのエンドポイントとその翻訳可能をテストするために使用することができます。このシステムは、新たに転写されたmRNAまたはトランスフェクション効率を妨害することなく、翻訳開始因子の突然変異の最初の結果を評価することは興味深いことである問題がしばしば発生してeukary耳の細胞研究。 ここでは、プロトコルは、 アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞と母性mRNAの翻訳をテストするに変異eIF4G1のmRNAが微量注入される確立されています。卵母細胞の減数分裂細胞周期を通って、初期および後期のクラスのmRNAのその後の翻訳のために進行に不可欠であるGVBD進行中の欠陥、MOSのmRNAのポリアデニル化の存在下で確認されます。リン酸化オーロラA / Eg2のおよびERKものMOS deregulation.Thusの結果を確認するために検討され、 アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞は、mRNAの翻訳の異なるステップを分析するための簡単な方法を表します。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Tricaine methane sulphonate</td>
			<td>Sandoz</td>
			<td>MS-222</td>
			<td rowspan="8">oocytes handling</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>Moria</td>
			<td>Dumont MC40</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptomycin/penicillin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>781</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyruvate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P2256</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Soybean trypsin inhibitor</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T9128</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetracyclin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T7660</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Veterinarian absorbable Vicryl thread</td>
			<td>Johnson&#38;Johson Intl</td>
			<td>JV1205</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collagenase A</td>
			<td>Roche diagnostics</td>
			<td>10103586001</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PmeI</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>R0560S</td>
			<td rowspan="14">Preparation of synthetic mRNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAse/RNAse free H2O</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10977</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Acetate</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>6268</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Absolute ethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>02854</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nano Drop</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TBE 10X</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>0032006.507</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethidium bromide 10 mg/mL</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15585-011</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mMESSAGE mMACHINE&#174; Kit</td>
			<td>Ambion by Life Technologies</td>
			<td>AM1344</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MOPS</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M1254</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>03609</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>16500-500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formaldehyde 37%</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1.04003.1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formamide</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>47671</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel Doc Imager</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oocyte Pipet with 100 8&#34; Glass Capillaries</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>3-000-510-X</td>
			<td rowspan="4">microinjection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Replacement Glass 8&#34;</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>3-000-210-G8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0,45 &#181;m filter</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>SLHA025NB</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Progesterone</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P0130</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hepes</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td rowspan="32">Western Blot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S5886</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SDS</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>161-0301</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A3294</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A4612</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>leupeptin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>L8511</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>aprotinin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A1153</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>benzamidine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B6506</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PMSF</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7626</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sodium vanadate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S6508</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laemmli buffer</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>161-0737</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE Novex 4-12% Bis-Tris Protein Gels, 1.0 mm, 15 well</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>NP0323BOX</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SDS-PAGE electrophoresis, mini-Protean TGX</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>456-1036 and -1096</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>horizontal semi-dry blotting system</td>
			<td>W.E.P. Compagny</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>161-0718</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris-HCl</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>161-0719</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hybond ECL Membrane</td>
			<td>Amersham Life Science</td>
			<td>10401180</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20846-292</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ponceau Red (0,5%)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P3504</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween 20</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P2287</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-GFP</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A11122</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-V5</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-58052</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-Eg2</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-27884</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-Eg2-P</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>C39D8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-ERK2</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-1647</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-ERK2-P (Tyr204)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-7976</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-Rsk</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-231</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-mos</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-86</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-mouse horseradish peroxidase labeled secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2005</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-rabbit horseradish peroxidase labeled secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2812</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-goat horseradish peroxidase labeled secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-2378</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Advanced ECL Detection System</td>
			<td>Amershan Life Science</td>
			<td>RPN2135</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS 1x</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P4417</td>
			<td rowspan="11">polyadenylation assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIZOL (Qiazol Lysis Reagent)</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>79306</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>31998-8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>278475-1L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNeasy mini kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>74106</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RTL buffer&#160;</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>79216</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNAse free DNAse set</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>79254</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primers</td>
			<td>Eurogentec</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T4 RNA ligase 1&#160;</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>M0204S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High capacity c-DNA Reverse Transcription kit</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies</td>
			<td>4368813</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Taq polymerase</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10342020</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

xenopus laevis as a model to identify translation impairment

タンパク質合成は、多様な生物学的プロセスに影響を与える遺伝子発現環境条件に特に適応への基本的なプロセスです。 mRNAの開始コドン、eIF4G1含む関与の開始因子でリボソームサブユニットの組み立てを伴う開始段階、。翻訳のこの律速段階の欠陥は、多様な疾患にリンクされています。そのような規制緩和の潜在的な影響を検討するために、 アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞が、ヒトとの本質的な細胞および分子メカニズムの保全度の高い魅力的なモデルを構成しているアフリカツメガエル 。また、減数分裂成熟中に、卵母細胞は、転写抑制され、すべての必要なタンパク質は、既存の、母体由来のmRNAから翻訳されます。この安価なモデルは、効果的な翻訳と完全に統合になるために、外因性のmRNAを可能にします。ここではSTORを使用して（ここではeIF4G1）興味の率で翻訳を評価するためのプロトコルに記載されています生理的な読み出しとして、卵母細胞の成熟中にポリアデニル化および翻訳することが最初のものである母性mRNAのエド。最初に、関心のプラスミドのインビトロ転写（ここeIF4G1）によって合成さmRNAは卵核胞崩壊検出が決定されることにより、卵母細胞および卵成熟の速度で注入されます。研究母性mRNA標的は、セリン/スレオニンプロテインキナーゼモスです。そのポリアデニル化およびその後の翻訳は、卵母細胞の成熟に関与するシグナル伝達カスケードMOSのタンパク質の発現およびリン酸化と一緒に検討しています。現在のプロトコルのバリエーションが提唱する翻訳の欠陥は、その一般的な適用性を強調するために提案されています。異常なタンパク質合成は、神経疾患の病因に関与し得ることを新たな証拠に照らして、そのようなモデルは、簡単にこの障害を評価し、新たな標的を同定するための機会を提供します。

アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞とPG刺激の24時間後の割合卵母細胞GVBDの決意（ 図2B、2C）のキネティック成熟： eIF4G1-DN変異の翻訳結果を研究するために、 アフリカツメガエルにおけるPGに対する応答は（H 2 O、GFP）eIF4G1-WTおよび他の制御条件と比較されたcRNA eIF4G1-DNに微量注入した卵母細胞をアフリカツメガエル 。コントロールは?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Xenopus laevis as a Model to Identify Translation Impairment at JoVE.com

Xenopus laevis as a Model to Identify Translation Impairment

Protein synthesis control occurs mainly at the translation initiation step, deficiencies in which are linked to diverse disorders. To better understand their etiology, we described here a protocol using Xenopus laevis oocytes assessing the translation of mos transcript in the presence of a mutant of translation initiation factor eIF4G1.

アフリカツメガエルは、翻訳減損を識別するためのモデルとして、 アフリカツメガエル

Protein synthesis is a fundamental process to gene expression impacting diverse biological processes notably adaptation to environmental conditions. The ...

xenopus-laevis-as-a-model-to-identify-translation-impairment

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Xenopus laevis as a Model to Identify Translation Impairment

Dissection of Organizer and Animal Pole Explants from Xenopus laevis Embryos and Assembly of a Cell Adhesion Assay

This video demonstrates the technique used for preparation of organizer and animal pole explants from Xenopus laevis embryos, including the use of the eyebrow knife - a specialized dissection tool made of one's eyebrow. The protocol for assembling an adhesion assay is also given, which probes for the presence of key adhesion molecules present on the surface organizer or animal pole cells that are critical for proper development.

アフリカツメガエルの胚および細胞接着アッセイのアセンブリから主催し、動物極の外植片の解剖

生物学

Plastic Embedding and Sectioning of Xenopus laevis Embryos

Plastic sections maintain true tissue morphology in thin sections of tissue that can be immunostained with fluorescent secondary antibodies, making this method more useful than paraffin-embedded or frozen sections for many types of tissue. The method for staining, plastic embedding, and sectioning is demonstrated in this video.

プラスチック製の埋め込みとアフリカツメガエル胚のセクショニング

Obtaining Eggs from Xenopus laevis Females

The eggs of Xenopus laevis intact, lysed, and/or fractionated are useful for a wide variety of experiments. This protocol shows how to induce egg laying, collect and dejelly the eggs, and sort the eggs to remove any damaged eggs.

The eggs of Xenopus laevis intact, lysed, and/or fractionated are useful for a wide variety of experiments. This protocol shows how to induce egg laying, collect and dejelly the eggs, and sort the eggs to remove any damaged eggs.

アフリカツメガエル女性から卵子を入手

The eggs of Xenopus laevis intact, lysed, and/or fractionated are useful for a wide variety of experiments. This protocol shows how to induce egg laying, ...

Preparation and Fractionation of Xenopus laevis Egg Extracts

Crude and fractionated Xenopus egg extracts can be used to provide ingredients for reconstituting cellular processes for morphological and biochemical analysis. Egg lysis and differential centrifugation are used to prepare the crude extract which in turn in used to prepare fractionated extracts and light membrane preparations.

Crude and fractionated Xenopus egg extracts can be used to provide ingredients for reconstituting cellular processes for morphological and biochemical analysis. Egg lysis and differential centrifugation are used to prepare the crude extract which in turn in used to prepare fractionated extracts and light membrane preparations.

アフリカツメガエル卵抽出物の調製と分画

Crude and fractionated Xenopus egg extracts can be used to provide ingredients for reconstituting cellular processes for morphological and biochemical ...

Microinjection of Xenopus Laevis Oocytes

Microinjection of Xenopus laevis oocytes followed by thin-sectioning electron microscopy (EM) is an excellent system for studying nucleocytoplasmic transport. Because of its large nucleus and high density of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), nuclear transport can be easily visualized in the Xenopus oocyte. Much insight into the mechanisms of nuclear import and export has been gained through use of this system (reviewed by Pant&eacute;, 2006). In addition, we have used microinjection of Xenopus oocytes to dissect the nuclear import pathways of several viruses that replicate in the host nucleus. 
Here we demonstrate the cytoplasmic microinjection of Xenopus oocytes with a nuclear import substrate. We also show preparation of the injected oocytes for visualization by thin-sectioning EM, including dissection, dehydration, and embedding of the oocytes into an epoxy embedding resin. Finally, we provide representative results for oocytes that have been microinjected with the capsid of the baculovirus Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) or the parvovirus Minute Virus of Mice (MVM), and discuss potential applications of the technique.

Here we demonstrate cytoplasmic microinjection of Xenopus laevis oocytes with a nuclear import substrate, as well as preparation of the injected oocytes for visualization by thin-sectioning electron microscopy.

アフリカツメガエル卵母細胞のマイクロインジェクション

Microinjection of Xenopus laevis oocytes followed by thin-sectioning electron microscopy (EM) is an excellent system for studying nucleocytoplasmic ...

Tissue Determination Using the Animal Cap Transplant (ACT) Assay in Xenopus laevis

Many proteins play a dual role in embryonic development. Those that regulate cell fate determination in a specific tissue can also affect the development of a larger region of the embryo. This makes defining its role in a particular tissue difficult to analyze. For example, noggin overexpression in Xenopus laevis embryos causes the expansion of the entire anterior region, including the eye1,2. From this result, it is not known if Noggin plays a direct role in eye determination or that by causing an expansion of neural tissue, Noggin indirectly affects eye formation. Having this complex phenotype makes studying its eye-specific role in cell fate determination difficult to analyze. We have developed an assay that overcomes this problem. Taking advantage of the pluripotent nature of the Xenopus laevis animal cap 3, we have developed an assay to test the ability of gene product(s), like noggin or the eye field transcription factors (EFTFs), to transform caps into particular tissue or cell types by transplanting this tissue onto the side of the embryo 4. While we have found either Noggin protein treatment or a collection of transcription factors can determine retinal cell fate in animal caps, this procedure could be used to identify gene product(s) involved in specifying other tissues as well.

Tissue Determination Using the Animal Cap Transplant ACT Assay in Xenopus laevis

Animal caps overexpressing gene product(s) are transplanted to the flank of developing Xenopus laevis embryos in order to establish whether tissue is determined.

でアニマルキャップの移植（ACT）アッセイを用いて組織の決定アフリカツメガエル</em

Many proteins play a dual role in embryonic development. Those that regulate cell fate determination in a specific tissue can also affect the development ...

Live-cell Imaging and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Epithelial Cells in Xenopus laevis

Embryonic epithelial cells serve as an ideal model to study morphogenesis where multi-cellular tissues undergo changes in their geometry, such as changes in cell surface area and cell height, and where cells undergo mitosis and migrate. Furthermore, epithelial cells can also regulate morphogenetic movements in adjacent tissues1. A traditional method to study epithelial cells and tissues involve chemical fixation and histological methods to determine cell morphology or localization of particular proteins of interest. These approaches continue to be useful and provide "snapshots" of cell shapes and tissue architecture, however, much remains to be understood about how cells acquire specific shapes, how various proteins move or localize to specific positions, and what paths cells follow toward their final differentiated fate. High resolution live imaging complements traditional methods and also allows more direct investigation into the dynamic cellular processes involved in the formation, maintenance, and morphogenesis of multicellular epithelial sheets. Here we demonstrate experimental methods from the isolation of animal cap tissues from Xenopus laevis embryos to confocal imaging of epithelial cells and simple measurement approaches that together can augment molecular and cellular studies of epithelial morphogenesis.

Live-cell Imaging and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Epithelial Cells in Xenopus laevis

Xenopus embryonic epithelia are an ideal model system to study cell behaviors such as polarity development and shape change during epithelial morphogenesis. Traditional histology of fixed samples is increasingly being complemented by live-cell confocal imaging. Here we demonstrate methods to isolate frog tissues and visualize live epithelial cells and their cytoskeleton using live-cell confocal microscopy.

生細胞イメージングとの胚上皮細胞の定量分析アフリカツメガエル</em

Embryonic epithelial cells serve as an ideal model to study morphogenesis where multi-cellular tissues undergo changes in their geometry, such as changes ...

Production of Xenopus tropicalis Egg Extracts to Identify Microtubule-associated RNAs

Many organisms localize mRNAs to specific subcellular destinations to spatially and temporally control gene expression. Recent studies have demonstrated that the majority of the transcriptome is localized to a nonrandom position in cells and embryos. One approach to identify localized mRNAs is to biochemically purify a cellular structure of interest and to identify all associated transcripts. Using recently developed high-throughput sequencing technologies it is now straightforward to identify all RNAs associated with a subcellular structure. To facilitate transcript identification it is necessary to work with an organism with a fully sequenced genome. One attractive system for the biochemical purification of subcellular structures are egg extracts produced from the frog Xenopus laevis. However, X. laevis currently does not have a fully sequenced genome, which hampers transcript identification. In this article we describe a method to produce egg extracts from a related frog, X. tropicalis, that has a fully sequenced genome. We provide details for microtubule polymerization, purification and transcript isolation. While this article describes a specific method for identification of microtubule-associated transcripts, we believe that it will be easily applied to other subcellular structures and will provide a powerful method for identification of localized RNAs.

Production of Xenopus tropicalis Egg Extracts to Identify Microtubule-associated RNAs

We describe the collection of unfertilized Xenopus tropicalis eggs and production of a meiosis II-arrested egg extract. This egg extract can be used to purify microtubules and microtubule-associated RNAs.

の生産<em&gt;アフリカツメガエルトロピカ</em微小管関連RNAを識別するために、&gt;卵抽出

Many  organisms localize mRNAs to specific subcellular destinations to spatially and  temporally control gene expression. Recent studies have demonstrated ...

Facial Transplants in Xenopus laevis Embryos

Craniofacial birth defects occur in 1 out of every 700 live births, but etiology is rarely known due to limited understanding of craniofacial development. To identify where signaling pathways and tissues act during patterning of the developing face, a 'face transplant' technique has been developed in embryos of the frog Xenopus laevis. A region of presumptive facial tissue (the "Extreme Anterior Domain" (EAD)) is removed from a donor embryo at tailbud stage, and transplanted to a host embryo of the same stage, from which the equivalent region has been removed. This can be used to generate a chimeric face where the host or donor tissue has a loss or gain of function in a gene, and/or includes a lineage label. After healing, the outcome of development is monitored, and indicates roles of the signaling pathway within the donor or surrounding host tissues. Xenopus is a valuable model for face development, as the facial region is large and readily accessible for micromanipulation. Many embryos can be assayed, over a short time period since development occurs rapidly. Findings in the frog are relevant to human development, since craniofacial processes appear conserved between Xenopus and mammals.

Facial Transplants in Xenopus laevis Embryos

A technique for transplanting "Extreme Anterior Domain" facial tissue between Xenopus laevis embryos has been developed. Tissue can be moved from one gene expression background into another, allowing the study of local requirements for craniofacial development and for signaling interactions between facial regions.

顔面移植<em&gt;アフリカツメガエル</em&gt;胚

Craniofacial birth defects occur in 1 out of every 700 live births, but etiology is rarely known due to limited understanding of craniofacial development. ...

Using plusTipTracker Software to Measure Microtubule Dynamics in Xenopus laevis Growth Cones

Microtubule (MT) plus-end-tracking proteins (+TIPs) localize to the growing plus-ends of MTs and regulate MT dynamics1,2. One of the most well-known and widely-utilized +TIPs for analyzing MT dynamics is the End-Binding protein, EB1, which binds all growing MT plus-ends, and thus, is a marker for MT polymerization1. Many studies of EB1 behavior within growth cones have used time-consuming and biased computer-assisted, hand-tracking methods to analyze individual MTs1-3. Our approach is to quantify global parameters of MT dynamics using the software package, plusTipTracker4, following the acquisition of high-resolution, live images of tagged EB1 in cultured embryonic growth cones5. This software is a MATLAB-based, open-source, user-friendly package that combines automated detection, tracking, visualization, and analysis for movies of fluorescently-labeled +TIPs. Here, we present the protocol for using plusTipTracker for the analysis of fluorescently-labeled +TIP comets in cultured Xenopus laevis growth cones. However, this software can also be used to characterize MT dynamics in various cell types6-8.

Using plusTipTracker Software to Measure Microtubule Dynamics in Xenopus laevis Growth Cones

The MATLAB-based, open source software package, plusTipTracker, can be used to analyze image series of fluorescently-labeled +TIPs to quantify microtubule dynamics.

で微小管ダイナミクスを測定するためにplusTipTrackerソフトウェアを使用した<em&gt;アフリカツメガエル</em&gt;成長円錐

Microtubule (MT) plus-end-tracking proteins (+TIPs) localize to the growing plus-ends of MTs and regulate MT dynamics1,2. One of the most well-known and ...

アフリカツメガエルは、翻訳減損を識別するためのモデルとして、 アフリカツメガエル

アフリカツメガエルは、翻訳減損を識別するためのモデルとして、アフリカツメガエル