Name: three-dimensional tissue engineered aligned astrocyte networks to recapitulate developmental mechanisms and facilitate nervous system regeneration
Uploaded: 2018-01-10T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Three-dimensional Tissue Engineered Aligned Astrocyte Networks to Recapitulate Developmental Mechanisms and Facilitate Nervous System Regeneration at JoVE.com

Financial support was provided by the National Institutes of Health [U01-NS094340 (Cullen) &#38; F31-NS090746 (Katiyar)], Michael J. Fox Foundation [Therapeutic Pipeline Program #9998 (Cullen)], Penn Medicine Neuroscience Center Pilot Award (Cullen), National Science Foundation [Graduate Research Fellowships DGE-1321851 (Struzyna)], Department of Veterans Affairs [RR&#38;D Merit Review #B1097-I (Cullen)], and the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command [#W81XWH-13-207004 (Cullen) &#38; W81XWH-15-1-0466 (Cullen)].

All procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees at the University of Pennsylvania and the Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center and adhered to the guidelines set forth in the NIH Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (2015).
1. Development of the Agarose Hydrogel Micro-columns
<ol>
	<li>Make an agarose 3% weight/volume (w/v) solution by weighing 3 g of agarose and transferring it to a sterile beaker containing...

When compared to the more supportive environment of the PNS, the CNS is particularly limited in handling the detrimental consequences of neurotrauma and neurodegeneration. After a serious insult to the mammalian CNS, a glial scar is formed, consisting of a core of fibrotic and inflammatory cells surrounded by a dense meshwork of disorganized reactive astrocytes that secrete axon outgrowth-inhibiting proteoglycans14. This scar acts as a physical and biochemical obstruction against the regeneration ...

The central nervous system (CNS) has a limited capacity to counteract the loss and/or dysfunction of neurons and axonal pathways that accompany conditions such as traumatic brain injury (TBI), stroke, spinal cord injury (SCI), and neurodegenerative disease1,2,3,4,5. Neurogenesis in the CNS is restricted to a limited number of areas in the brain, hampering the restoration of lost neurons6,7. Additionally, regeneration of lost axonal pathways in the CNS is insufficient due to the lack of directed guidance, the presence of outgrowth inhibitors, and reactive astrogliosis following damage to neural tissue2,8,9,10. Astrocytes typically have diverse functions in assisting neurons with ion homeostasis, neurotransmitter clearance, synapse formation, and neurovascular coupling11. Nevertheless, following even mild damage to neural tissue, astrocytes may undergo molecular, structural, and functional changes as they transition to a hypertrophic state11. In response to severe neurotrauma, these changes result in the formation of a scar with a penumbra containing migrating reactive astrocytes and a lesion core that includes leukocytes leaked from the ruptured blood-brain barrier (BBB), microglia, oligodendrocytes, and fibroblasts11,12,13. These reactive astrocytes attain a morphology of filamentous, disorganized processes and exhibit increased expression of intermediate filament proteins and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), which hinder neural regeneration12. Even though the glial scar initially helps restore BBB integrity and avoid transmission of the inflammatory response to surrounding healthy tissue, it serves as a physical and biochemical barrier against axon regeneration12,14,15,16. For instance, axons that encounter the glial scar display bulbous dystrophic growth cones and stunted growth12. Furthermore, the disorganization of astrocytic processes after injury impedes the extension of regenerating axons17. The outcome of these inhibitory characteristics is manifested in the often-permanent physical and neurological impairments that patients suffer after severe neurotrauma, including TBI and SCI.
Regardless of the extrinsic challenges facing functional regeneration in the CNS, axons have been shown to possess an intrinsic ability to regenerate. For instance, the dynamic nature of the dystrophic growth cones in contact with the glial scar suggests that these endings retain their capacity to extend12. Consequently, it is believed that a main hindrance to axonal re-growth is the inhibitory environment of the post-injury CNS and that providing a more permissive environment via reducing glial scarring and/or providing regenerative bridges across the scar would be advantageous. Indeed, previous studies have demonstrated that CNS neurons were capable of extending axons through a lesion using peripheral nerve grafts as bridges, which present a more favorable environment for axon regeneration12,18,19. Several other strategies have been pursued to exploit this vestigial regenerative capacity. For example, manipulation of cell growth signaling pathways in various injury models has resulted in axonal regeneration and glial scar reduction10,20,21. Additionally, studies have shown that treatment with chondroitinase ABC, which cleaves the majority of the sugar chains in CSPGs, lessens the inhibitory effect of CSPGs secreted by reactive astrocytes22. Despite encouraging results, these approaches do not provide directed guidance of growth cones, which can potentially result in aberrant regeneration12, and also do not account for the loss of neurons. Cell-based approaches have been utilized in attempts to surmount the effects of the glial scar and to replenish lost cells, particularly neurons. Some groups have dedifferentiated reactive astrocytes into neurons, while others have transplanted neural progenitor cells into CNS lesions to repopulate the injury area and promote axon regeneration23,24,25. However, stem cell transplantation alone is limited by low survival rates, poor integration, and modest retention in the damaged tissue5. Furthermore, these cell-based strategies fail to restore long-distance axonal tracts, especially in a controlled manner. Therefore, biomaterials in combination with other approaches are being explored as delivery vehicles for various neural and progenitor cells and growth factors26. Biomaterial-based approaches feature a high degree of design control to produce constructs that mimic the specific physical, haptotaxic, and chemotaxic cues present in the three-dimensional (3D) microenvironment of the target host tissue27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34. Reproduction of these environmental signals is paramount for transplanted cells to present native-like morphology, proliferation, migration, and signaling, among other neurobiological characteristics29. Despite these advantageous properties, advancement beyond traditional cell seeded biomaterial scaffolds is required to simultaneously promote directed long-distance axonal regeneration and replace lost neurons.
A promising alternative approach is based on neural tissue engineered &#34;living scaffolds&#34;, which are distinct from other cell-based approaches due to the presence of living neural cells with a preformed cytoarchitecture that emulates native neuroanatomy and/or developmental mechanisms to facilitate targeted replacement, reconstruction, and regeneration of neural circuitry4,35. Considerations for the design of living scaffolds include the phenotypes and sources of neural cells, as well as the mechanical/physical properties and the biochemical signals dictated by the composition of any accompanying biomaterials35. After fabrication in vitro, these living scaffolds can be implanted in vivo to present cell-adhesion molecules and chemotactic and neurotrophic signals to actively regulate neural cell migration and axon outgrowth depending on the state and progression of regenerative processes35. Glial cells can serve as a basis for the engineered cytoarchitecture of living scaffolds since these cells mediate various developmental mechanisms in vivo. During brain development, new neurons rely on basal processes extended by radial glia from the ventricular zone towards the developing cortical plate as living scaffolds for directed migration36,37. Furthermore, extending growth cones are shown to orient themselves by sensing attractive and repellent signals elicited by glial guidepost cells, and so-called &#34;pioneering&#34; axons are suggested to reach the correct targets by extending along pre-patterned glial scaffolds35,38,39. Thus, glial cells are necessary for the guidance of pioneering axons, which later serve as axon-based &#34;living scaffolds&#34; to direct the projection of &#34;follower&#34; axons. Moreover, glia-mediated growth mechanisms have been shown to persist postnatally, as neuroblasts follow the rostral migratory stream (RMS) to navigate from the subventricular zone (SVZ), one of the few remaining areas of neurogenesis in the adult brain, to the olfactory bulb (OB)40. These neuroblasts in the RMS migrate within the glial tube (Figure 1A-1), which is comprised of longitudinally-aligned astrocytic processes, via direct cell-cell adhesions and localized soluble factors37,41. Finally, while CNS damage in mammals causes disrupted astrocytic process arrangement forming a glial scar that physically impedes axonal regeneration17, many non-mammalian systems lack the formation of a detrimental glial scar. Rather, glial cells of non-mammalian species maintain more organized, aligned patterns that are used as guides through the injured region17,42,43. For instance, in non-mammalian SCI models, axons are shown to grow in close association with glial bridges crossing the lesion, suggesting an important role for organized glial scaffolds as substrates facilitating axonal regeneration and functional recovery (Figure 1A-2)42,44,45. Recapitulation of the neuroanatomical features and the developmental/regenerative mechanisms described above may yield a new class of engineered glial-based living scaffolds that can concurrently drive immature neuronal migration and axonal pathfinding through otherwise non-permissive environments, thereby potentially mitigating the effects of neuronal and axon tract degeneration associated with CNS injury and disease.
Our research group has previously designed multiple types of living scaffolds for reconstruction and regeneration of axonal tracts in the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) via micro-tissue engineered neural networks (micro-TENNs) and tissue engineered nerve grafts (TENGs), respectively27,46,47,48. Both strategies are based inherently on biomimicry. Micro-TENNs are anatomically-inspired structures designed to structurally and functionally replace axonal tracts connecting distinct neuronal populations of the brain. TENGs exploit the developmental mechanism of axon-facilitated axonal regeneration, exemplified by &#34;follower&#34; axon growth along &#34;pioneer&#34; axons, to achieve targeted host axonal regeneration35,46,48. We recently capitalized on the versatility of the living scaffold technique using a similar encasement scheme as micro-TENNs and seeking inspiration from the glia-based mechanisms present throughout development. Here, we developed constructs consisting of aligned astrocytic bundles spanning the collagenous lumen of a hydrogel micro-column49. These astrocytic living scaffolds are developed by first filling a capillary tube-acupuncture needle assembly with liquid agarose to create a hollow cylindrical hydrogel with an outer diameter (OD) and inner diameter (ID) corresponding to the diameters of the tube and needle, respectively. Following agarose gelation and extraction of the hydrogel micro-column from the capillary tube, the hollow interior is coated with type I collagen to supply an environment permissive for astrocyte adhesion and aligned bundle formation (Figure 1B-1). Afterwards, the lumen is seeded with cerebral cortical astrocytes isolated from postnatal rat pups (Figure 1B-2). Contrary to two-dimensional (2D) alignment techniques that rely on the application of electric fields, micropatterned grooves, and extracellular matrix (ECM) protein patterning, astrocyte alignment in the living scaffold technique relies on self-assembly according to controllable variables such as substrate curvature (column ID), cell density, and collagen concentration50,51,52. The astrocytes contract and remodel the collagen, and acquire a bipolar, longitudinally-aligned morphology analogous to the natural scaffolds observed in vivo (Figure 1B-3). Indeed, we are actively pursuing the use of these cable-like structures as physical substrates for targeted guidance of migrating immature neurons as well as facilitating axonal regeneration through the unfavorable environment of the damaged CNS, particularly the mammalian glial scar (Figure 1C). This article will present the detailed fabrication method for the astrocytic micro-columns, phase contrast and immunofluorescence images of the expected cytoarchitecture, and a comprehensive discussion on the current limitations and future directions of the technique.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55848/55848fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Inspiration, Fabrication Protocol, and Proposed Applications for the Aligned Astrocytic Networks. (A) Neurobiological inspiration: (1) Neuroblasts originating from the neurogenic subventricular zone (SVZ) utilize the longitudinally aligned glial tube in the rostral migratory stream (RMS) for directed migration towards the olfactory bulb (OB); (2) Non-mammals such as amphibians and fish can sustain regeneration after neural tissue damage in part due to the formation of a glial bridge that connects the ends of a lesion (e.g. transected spinal cord) and serves as a scaffold for the guidance of regenerating axons. (B) Fabrication overview: (1) construction of a micron-sized, hollow hydrogel micro-column with the lumen coated with ECM, (2) seeding of primary cortical astrocytes isolated from postnatal rat pups, (3) self-assembly of the longitudinally-oriented bundles in culture, and (4) extraction of the bundle from the biomaterial encasement for future implantation studies. (C) In vivo applications: (1) These living scaffolds may serve as engineered glial tubes for directed neuron migration from neurogenic centers to repopulate neuron-deficient regions; (2) Recapitulation of the developmental mechanism of pioneering axon guidance and the regenerative mechanism of glial bridges in non-mammals may endow these astrocytic scaffolds with the capacity to direct axon regeneration across the non-permissive environment of the mammalian glial scar. <a href="//cloudflare.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55848/55848fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acupuncture needle (300 &#181;m diameter)</td>
			<td>Lhasa Medical</td>
			<td>HS.30x40</td>
			<td>The diameter may be varied according to the desired size for the micro-column lumen.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>08772B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s phosphate buffered saline (DPBS)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>14200075</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polystyrene disposable serological pipet</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13-678-11D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A9539-50G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microliter glass capillary tube (701 &#181;m)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>21-170J</td>
			<td>The diameter may be varied according to the desired size for the micro-column shell.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcap bulb dispenser</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>21-170J</td>
			<td>Bulb comes with the microcap tubes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>SP88857200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic bar</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>1451352</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>Z683884-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25 mm gauge needle</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14-826-49</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscalpel</td>
			<td>Roboz Surgical</td>
			<td>RS-6270</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>14081-09</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>501985</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot bead sterilizer</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>Z378550-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereoscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>SMZ800N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro-spatula</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S50821</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rat tail type I collagen</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>354236</td>
			<td>Maintain at 4 &#186;C and remove only when needed. Use ice to preserve its temperature when in use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>02-681-256</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>SS2661</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid (HCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>SA48-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Litmus paper</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>09-876-18</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hank&#39;s balanced salt solution (HBSS)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>14170112</td>
			<td>Store at 4 &#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.25% Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>25200056</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C and warm at 37 &#186;C before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine pancreatic deoxyribonuclease (Dnase) I</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>10104159001</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C and warm at 37 &#186;C before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) with Ham&#39;s F-12 Nutrient Mixture</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11330-032</td>
			<td>Store at 4 &#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Atlanta Biologicals</td>
			<td>S11195</td>
			<td>Store at -20&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Postnatal day 0 or day 1 Sprague Dawley rat pups</td>
			<td>Charles River</td>
			<td>Strain 001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neurobasal embryonic neuron basal medium</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>21103049</td>
			<td>Store at 4&#186;C and warm at 37 &#186;C before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B-27 serum free supplement</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>12587010</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C and warm at 37 &#186;C before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-glutamine</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>35050061</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C and warm at 37 &#186;C before use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>G5 astrocytic supplement</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>17503012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sprague Dawley embryonic day 18 rats</td>
			<td>Charles River</td>
			<td>Strain 001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pasteur pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>22-042816</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL centrifuge tube</td>
			<td>EMESCO</td>
			<td>1194-352099</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortex</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>02-215-414</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-413-115</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemocytometer</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>02-671-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13 998 076</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formaldehyde 40%</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>F77P-4</td>
			<td>Formaldehyde is a toxic compound known to be carcinogenic, and must be disposed of in a separate container.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass cover slip</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>12-548-5M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nail polish</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences (EMS)</td>
			<td>72180</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluoromont mounting medium</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech</td>
			<td>0100-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-L-lysine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P4707</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffered saline</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP3994</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T8787</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal horse serum</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>16050-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-glial acidic fibrillary protein (GFAP) primary antibody</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>AB5804</td>
			<td>Store at -20&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse anti-beta-tubulin III primary antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T8578</td>
			<td>Store at -20&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-collagen I primary antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab34710</td>
			<td>Store at -20&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-vimentin</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>AB3400</td>
			<td>Store at -20&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse anti-nestin</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>AB5326</td>
			<td>Store at -20&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-mouse 568 secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A10037</td>
			<td>Store at 4&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-rabbit 568 secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A10042</td>
			<td>Store at 4&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-rabbit 488 secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A21206</td>
			<td>Store at 4&#186;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hoechst 33342, Trihydrochloride</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>H3570</td>
			<td>Store at 4&#186;C. Hoechst is a known mutagen that should be treated as a carcinogen. Therefore, it must be disposed of in a separate container.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcein AM</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C1359</td>
			<td>4 mM in anhydrous DMSO</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethidium homodimer-1</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>E1169</td>
			<td>2 mM in DMSO/H2O 1:4 (v/v)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxane (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>276855</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A1RSI Laser Scanning Confocal Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>--------------</td>
			<td>Used for taking the confocal reconstructions of immunolabeled constructs.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eclipse Ti-S Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>--------------</td>
			<td>Used for taking the phase-contrast images. With digital image acquisition using a QiClick camera interfaced with Nikon Elements Basic Research software (4.10.01).</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

three-dimensional tissue engineered aligned astrocyte networks to recapitulate developmental mechanisms and facilitate nervous system regeneration

Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative disease often result in lasting neurological deficits due to the limited capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) to replace lost neurons and regenerate axonal pathways. However, during nervous system development, neuronal migration and axonal extension often occur along pathways formed by other cells, referred to as &#34;living scaffolds&#34;. Seeking to emulate these mechanisms and to design a strategy that circumvents the inhibitory environment of the CNS, this manuscript presents a protocol to fabricate tissue engineered astrocyte-based &#34;living scaffolds&#34;. To create these constructs, we employed a novel biomaterial encasement scheme to induce astrocytes to self-assemble into dense three-dimensional bundles of bipolar longitudinally-aligned somata and processes. First, hollow hydrogel micro-columns were assembled, and the inner lumen was coated with collagen extracellular-matrix. Dissociated cerebral cortical astrocytes were then delivered into the lumen of the cylindrical micro-column and, at a critical inner diameter of &#60;350 &#181;m, spontaneously self-aligned and contracted to produce long fiber-like cables consisting of dense bundles of astrocyte processes and collagen fibrils measuring &#60;150 &#181;m in diameter yet extending several cm in length. These engineered living scaffolds exhibited &#62;97% cell viability and were virtually exclusively comprised of astrocytes expressing a combination of the intermediate filament proteins glial-fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vimentin, and nestin. These aligned astrocyte networks were found to provide a permissive substrate for neuronal attachment and aligned neurite extension. Moreover, these constructs maintain integrity and alignment when extracted from the hydrogel encasement, making them suitable for CNS implantation. These preformed constructs structurally emulate key cytoarchitectural elements of naturally occurring glial-based &#34;living scaffolds&#34; in vivo. As such, these engineered living scaffolds may serve as test-beds to study neurodevelopmental mechanisms in vitro or facilitate neuroregeneration by directing neuronal migration and/or axonal pathfinding following CNS degeneration in vivo.

Initially, phase-contrast microscopy was used to monitor the progression of astrocyte adhesion and bundle formation and the overall stability of the cytoarchitecture as a function of time. At 1 h after plating, astrocytes were found throughout the lumen of the micro-columns with a spherical morphology (Figure 2A). At 5 h, astrocytes started extending processes and contracting, while by 8 h cells exhibited a complete process-bearing morphology and formed cable...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Three-dimensional Tissue Engineered Aligned Astrocyte Networks to Recapitulate Developmental Mechanisms and Facilitate Nervous System Regeneration at JoVE.com

Three-dimensional Tissue Engineered Aligned Astrocyte Networks to Recapitulate Developmental Mechanisms and Facilitate Nervous System Regeneration

We showcase the development of self-assembled, three-dimensional bundles of longitudinally aligned astrocytic somata and processes within a novel biomaterial encasement. These engineered &#34;living scaffolds&#34;, exhibiting micron-scale diameter yet extending centimeters in length, may serve as test-beds to study neurodevelopmental mechanisms or facilitate neuroregeneration by directing neuronal migration and/or axonal pathfinding.

Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative disease often result in lasting neurological deficits due to the limited capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) to ...

This protocol aims to guide the fabrication of self-assembled, three-dimensional bundles of longitudinally aligned astrocytic somata and processes within a micron-sized hydrogel micro-column for use as an in vitro neuro-biological model or as a neuro-regenerative therapy. Trauma and neurodegenerative disease are particularly detrimental to patients due to the restricted neurogenic capacity in inhibitory environment that limit regeneration in the central nervous system. Engineered astrocytic bundles address the limitations of current treatment strategies by attempting to replicate key neuroanatomical features and glia-mediated developmental mechanisms to promoted targeted cell migration and axon pathfinding.The architecture of these astrocytic scaffolds is primarily inspired by the aligned astrocytic processes in the glial tubes of the rostral migratory stream. Begin by preparing a 3%weight per volume agarose solution and DPBS in a sterile beaker. Maintain the heating and stirring to prevent the solution from solidifying prematurely.Insert an acupuncture needle into the bottom opening of the bulb dispenser. Place a capillary tube over the exposed needle and secure the two by entering part of it into the rubber section of the bulb dispenser cylinder. Cap the cylinder to complete the assembly.Transfer one milliliter of liquid agarose to the surface of an empty petri dish. While pinching the rubber cap of the bulb dispenser, insert one end of the capillary tube into the agarose, and release the pressure on the cap to draw agarose into the tube. Place the bulb, tube, needle assemblies on a petri dish and let the agarose solidify inside the capillary tubes for 5 minutes.Then, pull the needle out of the capillary tube, leaving the micro-column still surrounding the needle. Use the tips of foreceps to nudge the micro-column to the end of the needle, then hold the needle over an open DPBS-containing petri dish and push the micro-column into the DPBS. To fabricate micro-column boats, which facilitate later handling of these constructs, begin by making a 4%weight per volume agarose solution, and keeping the solution heated and stirred.Use forceps to move a micro-column to an empty petri dish. Then, while working under a stereoscope, use a micro scalpel to trim the micro-columns to the desired length, with the ends cut at a 45 degree angle. After trimming three more micro-columns, line up the four columns in parallel.Load a pipet with 50 microliters of 4%agarose solution, and dispense a line of liquid over the micro-column array to connect and bundle the constructs into a boat. Allow to cool for 1 to 2 minutes to permit gelation of the 4%agarose. Then use fine forceps to pick up the micro-column boat by the connecting agarose bridge.And move it to a petri dish containing DPBS. Transfer the micro-column boat to a biosafety cabinet and sterilize with exposure to ultraviolet light for thirty minutes. Inside a biosafety cabinet, prepare a 1 milligram per milliliter solution of rat tail type 1 collagen in co-culture medium.And then place it on ice. Adjust the pH of the ECM solution with acid or base as necessary until the pH is stable in the 7.2 to 7.4 range. Transfer the micro-column boat to a 35 or 60 mL petri dish with forceps.Using the stereoscope for guidance, situate the 10 mL tip of a micro-pipette at one end of each micro-column and suction to empty the lumen of DPBS and air bubbles. Charge a P10 micropipette with the collagen solution. Place the 10 mL tip against one end of each micro-column, and deliver enough solution to fill the lumen.Then pipette a reservoir of ECM on either end of the micro-column. Once all columns have been filled, pipette coculture medium in a ring around the petri dish to prevent the columns from drying out. Incubate the dish containing the micro-columns at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide for at least one hour to promote polymerization of collagen before adding cells.Afterwards, place the tip of a P10 micropipette at one end of a micro-column and transfer approximately 5 mL of cell solution into the lumen to fill it. After seating all of the micro-columns in a boat, incubate it at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide for 1 hour to promote the attachment of astrocytes to the ECM. After the incubation period, carefully fill the dishes containing the seated micro-columns with 3 or 6 mLs of coculture media, for 35 or 60 mL petri dishes respectively.Maintain the plated micro-columns and culture at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide to promote the self assembly of the aligned of the astrocytic bundles, which should form a bundled, cable-like structure after six to ten hours. One hour after plating, astrocytes are spherical in shape and disperse throughout the construct. By five hours after plating, astrocytes initiate process extension and contraction.At eight hours after plating, astrocytes have aligned and contracted. By 24 hours after plating, a dense bundle of astrocytic processes has formed in this example. This fully-formed astrocytic bundle, 24 hours after plating, shows the zippering effect, where the ends of the cable attach to distinct ends of the wall of the lumen.This video shows bundling in action, 3 to 10 hours after plating. Immuno-labeling of the astrocytic scaffolds demonstrates the longitudinal alignment of astrocytic processes. In this confocal image of an astrocytic bundle, the astrocytic marker GFAP is read.And the nuclei are seen in blue. This higher magnification of the bundle permits visualization of the cyto-architecture of the astrocytes within the micro-columns. After watching this video, you should be able to fabricate living scaffolds consisting of longitudinally aligned astrocytic bundles with a biologically inspired cytoarchitecture within a biomaterial encasement.Following this procedure, a transplantation strategy can be designed to deliver the astrocytic bundles with or without the biomaterial encasement to injured brain tissue to promote directed cell migration from neurogenic regions and acts on guidance to the limiting CNS microenvironment. In addition, this technique can be expanded as biofidelic modeling platform glia-mediated neurobiological phenomenon benefited by the mimicry of the native three dimensional environment and the inherent experimental control of in vitro systems.

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Three-dimensional Optical-resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As the mainstays of in vivo three-dimensional (3-D) optical microscopy, single-/multi-photon fluorescence microscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) have demonstrated their extraordinary sensitivities to fluorescence and optical scattering contrasts, respectively. However, the optical absorption contrast of biological tissues, which encodes essential physiological/pathological information, has not yet been assessable. 
The emergence of biomedical photoacoustics has led to a new branch of optical microscopy optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM)1, where the optical irradiation is focused to the diffraction limit to achieve cellular1 or even subcellular2 level lateral resolution. As a valuable complement to existing optical microscopy technologies, OR-PAM brings in at least two novelties. First and most importantly, OR-PAM detects optical absorption contrasts with extraordinary sensitivity (i.e., 100%). Combining OR-PAM with fluorescence microscopy3 or with optical-scattering-based OCT4 (or with both) provides comprehensive optical properties of biological tissues. Second, OR-PAM encodes optical absorption into acoustic waves, in contrast to the pure optical processes in fluorescence microscopy and OCT, and provides background-free detection. The acoustic detection in OR-PAM mitigates the impacts of optical scattering on signal degradation and naturally eliminates possible interferences (i.e., crosstalks) between excitation and detection, which is a common problem in fluorescence microscopy due to the overlap between the excitation and fluorescence spectra. 
Unique for optical absorption imaging, OR-PAM has demonstrated broad biomedical applications since its invention, including, but not limited to, neurology5, 6, ophthalmology7, 8, vascular biology9, and dermatology10. In this video, we teach the system configuration and alignment of OR-PAM as well as the experimental procedures for in vivo functional microvascular imaging.

Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) is an emerging technology capable of imaging optical absorption contrasts in vivo with cellular resolution and sensitivity. Here, we provide a visualized instruction on the experimental protocols of OR-PAM, including system configuration, system alignment, typical in vivo experimental procedures, and functional imaging schemes.

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As ...

Planar and Three-Dimensional Printing of Conductive Inks

Printed electronics rely on low-cost, large-area fabrication routes to create flexible or multidimensional electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical devices1-3. In this paper, we focus on one- (1D), two- (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) printing of conductive metallic inks in the form of flexible, stretchable, and spanning microelectrodes.
Direct-write assembly4,5 is a 1-to-3D printing technique that enables the fabrication of features ranging from simple lines to complex structures by the deposition of concentrated inks through fine nozzles (~0.1 - 250 &mu;m). This printing method consists of a computer-controlled 3-axis translation stage, an ink reservoir and nozzle, and 10x telescopic lens for visualization. Unlike inkjet printing, a droplet-based process, direct-write assembly involves the extrusion of ink filaments either in- or out-of-plane. The printed filaments typically conform to the nozzle size. Hence, microscale features (&lt; 1 &mu;m) can be patterned and assembled into larger arrays and multidimensional architectures.
In this paper, we first synthesize a highly concentrated silver nanoparticle ink for planar and 3D printing via direct-write assembly. Next, a standard protocol for printing microelectrodes in multidimensional motifs is demonstrated. Finally, applications of printed microelectrodes for electrically small antennas, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes are highlighted.

Planar and three-dimensional printing of conductive metallic inks is described. Our approach provides new avenues for fabricating printed electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical devices in unusual layouts at the microscale.

Printed electronics rely on low-cost, large-area fabrication routes to create flexible or multidimensional electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical ...

Generation of Aligned Functional Myocardial Tissue Through Microcontact Printing

Advanced heart failure represents a major unmet clinical challenge, arising from the loss of viable and/or fully functional cardiac muscle cells. Despite optimum drug therapy, heart failure represents a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in the developed world. A major challenge in drug development is the identification of cellular assays that accurately recapitulate normal and diseased human myocardial physiology in vitro. Likewise, the major challenges in regenerative cardiac biology revolve around the identification and isolation of patient-specific cardiac progenitors in clinically relevant quantities. These cells have to then be assembled into functional tissue that resembles the native heart tissue architecture. Microcontact printing allows for the creation of precise micropatterned protein shapes that resemble structural organization of the heart, thus providing geometric cues to control cell adhesion spatially. Herein we describe our approach for the isolation of highly purified myocardial cells from pluripotent stem cells differentiating in vitro, the generation of cell growth surfaces micropatterned with extracellular matrix proteins, and the assembly of the stem cell-derived cardiac muscle cells into anisotropic myocardial tissue.

The generation of aligned myocardial tissue is a key requirement for adapting the recent advances in stem cell biology to clinically useful purposes. Herein we describe a microcontact printing approach for the precise control of cell shape and function. Using highly purified populations of embryonic stem cell derived cardiac progenitors, we then generate anisotropic functional myocardial tissue.

Advanced heart failure represents a major unmet clinical challenge,  arising from the loss of viable and/or fully functional cardiac muscle  cells. ...

Human Cartilage Tissue Fabrication Using Three-dimensional Inkjet Printing Technology

Bioprinting, which is based on thermal inkjet printing, is one of the most attractive enabling technologies in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. With digital control&#160;cells, scaffolds, and growth factors can be precisely deposited to the desired two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) locations rapidly. Therefore, this technology is an ideal approach to fabricate tissues mimicking their native anatomic structures. In order to engineer cartilage with native zonal organization, extracellular matrix composition (ECM), and mechanical properties, we developed a bioprinting platform using a commercial inkjet printer with simultaneous photopolymerization capable for 3D cartilage tissue engineering. Human chondrocytes suspended in poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) were printed for 3D neocartilage construction via layer-by-layer assembly. The printed cells were fixed at their original deposited positions, supported by the surrounding scaffold in simultaneous photopolymerization. The mechanical properties of the printed tissue were similar to the native cartilage. Compared to conventional tissue fabrication, which requires longer UV exposure, the viability of the printed cells with simultaneous photopolymerization was significantly higher. Printed neocartilage demonstrated excellent glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen type II production, which was consistent with gene expression. Therefore, this platform is ideal for accurate cell distribution and arrangement for anatomic tissue engineering.

The methods described in this paper show how to convert a commercial inkjet printer into a bioprinter with simultaneous UV polymerization. The printer is capable of constructing 3D tissue structure with cells and biomaterials. The study demonstrated here constructed a 3D neocartilage.

Bioprinting, which is based on thermal inkjet printing, is one of the most attractive enabling technologies in the field of tissue engineering and ...

Analysis of Cell Migration within a Three-dimensional Collagen Matrix

The ability to migrate is a hallmark of various cell types and plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including&#160;embryonic development, wound healing, and immune responses. However, cell migration is also a key mechanism in cancer enabling these cancer cells to detach from the primary tumor to start metastatic spreading. Within the past years various cell migration assays have been developed to analyze the migratory behavior of different cell types. Because the locomotory behavior of cells markedly differs between a two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) environment it can be assumed that the analysis of the migration of cells that are embedded within a 3D environment would yield in more significant cell migration data. The advantage of the described 3D collagen matrix migration assay is that cells are embedded within a physiological 3D network of collagen fibers representing the major component of the extracellular matrix. Due to time-lapse video microscopy real cell migration is measured allowing the determination of several migration parameters as well as their alterations in response to pro-migratory factors or inhibitors. Various cell types could be analyzed using this technique, including lymphocytes/leukocytes, stem cells, and tumor cells. Likewise, also cell clusters or spheroids could be embedded within the collagen matrix concomitant with analysis of the emigration of single cells from the cell cluster/ spheroid into the collagen lattice. We conclude that the 3D collagen matrix migration assay is a versatile method to analyze the migration of cells within a physiological-like 3D environment.

Cell migration is a biological phenomenon that is involved in a plethora of physiological, such as wound healing and immune responses, and pathophysiological processes, like cancer. The 3D-collagen matrix migration assay is a versatile tool to analyze the migratory properties of different cell types within in a 3D physiological-like environment.

The ability to migrate is a hallmark of various cell types and plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including&#160;embryonic ...

Generation of a Three-dimensional Full Thickness Skin Equivalent and Automated Wounding

In vitro models are a cost effective and ethical alternative to study cutaneous wound healing processes. Moreover, by using human cells, these models reflect the human wound situation better than animal models. Although two-dimensional models are widely used to investigate processes such as cellular migration and proliferation, models that are more complex are required to gain a deeper knowledge about wound healing. Besides a suitable model system, the generation of precise and reproducible wounds is crucial to ensure comparable results between different test runs. In this study, the generation of a three-dimensional full thickness skin equivalent to study wound healing is shown. The dermal part of the models is comprised of human dermal fibroblast embedded in a rat-tail collagen type I hydrogel. Following the inoculation with human epidermal keratinocytes and consequent culture at the air-liquid interface, a multilayered epidermis is formed on top of the models. To study the wound healing process, we additionally developed an automated wounding device, which generates standardized wounds in a sterile atmosphere.

The goal of this protocol is to build up a three-dimensional full thickness skin equivalent, which resembles natural skin. With a specifically constructed automated wounding device, precise and reproducible wounds can be generated under maintenance of sterility.

In vitro models are a cost effective and ethical alternative to study cutaneous wound healing processes. Moreover, by using human cells, these models ...

Construction of Defined Human Engineered Cardiac Tissues to Study Mechanisms of Cardiac Cell Therapy

Human cardiac tissue engineering can fundamentally impact therapeutic discovery through the development of new species-specific screening systems that replicate the biofidelity of three-dimensional native human myocardium, while also enabling a controlled level of biological complexity, and allowing non-destructive longitudinal monitoring of tissue contractile function. Initially, human engineered cardiac tissues (hECT) were created using the entire cell population obtained from directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells, which typically yielded less than 50% cardiomyocytes. However, to create reliable predictive models of human myocardium, and to elucidate mechanisms of heterocellular interaction, it is essential to accurately control the biological composition in engineered tissues. 
To address this limitation, we utilize live cell sorting for the cardiac surface marker SIRP&#945; and the fibroblast marker CD90 to create tissues containing a 3:1 ratio of these cell types, respectively, that are then mixed together and added to a collagen-based matrix solution. Resulting hECTs are, thus, completely defined in both their cellular and extracellular matrix composition.
Here we describe the construction of defined hECTs as a model system to understand mechanisms of cell-cell interactions in cell therapies, using an example of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) that are currently being used in human clinical trials. The defined tissue composition is imperative to understand how the hMSCs may be interacting with the endogenous cardiac cell types to enhance tissue function. A bioreactor system is also described that simultaneously cultures six hECTs in parallel, permitting more efficient use of the cells after sorting.

This manuscript describes the creation of defined engineered cardiac tissues using surface marker expression and cell sorting. The defined tissues can then be used in a multi-tissue bioreactor to investigate mechanisms of cardiac cell therapy in order to provide a functional, yet controlled, model system of the human heart.

Human cardiac tissue engineering can fundamentally impact therapeutic discovery through the development of new species-specific screening systems that ...

Engineering Three-dimensional Epithelial Tissues Embedded within Extracellular Matrix

The architecture of branched organs such as the lungs, kidneys, and mammary glands arises through the developmental process of branching morphogenesis, which is regulated by a variety of soluble and physical signals in the microenvironment. Described here is a method created to study the process of branching morphogenesis by forming engineered three-dimensional (3D) epithelial tissues of defined shape and size that are completely embedded within an extracellular matrix (ECM). This method enables the formation of arrays of identical tissues and enables the control of a variety of environmental factors, including tissue geometry, spacing, and ECM composition. This method can also be combined with widely used techniques such as traction force microscopy (TFM) to gain more information about the interactions between cells and their surrounding ECM. The protocol can be used to investigate a variety of cell and tissue processes beyond branching morphogenesis, including cancer invasion.

This manuscript describes a soft lithography-based technique to engineer uniform arrays of three-dimensional (3D) epithelial tissues of defined geometry surrounded by extracellular matrix. This method is amenable to a wide variety of cell types and experimental contexts and allows for high-throughput screening of identical replicates.

The architecture of branched organs such as the lungs, kidneys, and mammary glands arises through the developmental process of branching morphogenesis, ...

Melt Electrospinning Writing of Three-dimensional Poly(&#949;-caprolactone) Scaffolds with Controllable Morphologies for Tissue Engineering Applications

This tutorial reflects on the fundamental principles and guidelines for electrospinning writing with polymer melts, an additive manufacturing technology with great potential for biomedical applications. The technique facilitates the direct deposition of biocompatible polymer fibers to fabricate well-ordered scaffolds in the sub-micron to micro scale range. The establishment of a stable, viscoelastic, polymer jet between a spinneret and a collector is achieved using an applied voltage and can be direct-written. A significant benefit of a typical porous scaffold is a high surface-to-volume ratio which provides increased effective adhesion sites for cell attachment and growth. Controlling the printing process by fine-tuning the system parameters enables high reproducibility in the quality of the printed scaffolds. It also provides a flexible manufacturing platform for users to tailor the morphological structures of the scaffolds to their specific requirements. For this purpose, we present a protocol to obtain different fiber diameters using melt electrospinning writing (MEW) with a guided amendment of the parameters, including flow rate, voltage and collection speed. Furthermore, we demonstrate how to optimize the jet, discuss often experienced technical challenges, explain troubleshooting techniques and showcase a wide range of printable scaffold architectures.

This protocol serves as a comprehensive guideline to fabricate scaffolds via electrospinning with polymer melts in a direct writing mode. We systematically outline the process and define the appropriate parameter settings for achieving targeted scaffold architectures.

This tutorial reflects on the fundamental principles and guidelines for electrospinning writing with polymer melts, an additive manufacturing technology ...

Culturing Mammalian Cells in Three-dimensional Peptide Scaffolds

A useful technique for culturing cells in a self-assembling nanofiber three-dimensional (3D) scaffold is described. This culture system recreates an environment that closely mimics the structural features of non-polarized tissue. Furthermore, the particular intrinsic nanofiber structure of the scaffold makes it transparent to visual light, which allows for easy visualization of the sample under microscopy. This advantage was largely used to study cell migration, organization, proliferation, and differentiation and thus any development of their particular cellular function by staining with specific dyes or probes. Furthermore, in this work, we describe the good performance of this system to easily study the redifferentiation of expanded human articular chondrocytes into cartilaginous tissue. Cells were encapsulated into self-assembling peptide scaffolds and cultured under specific conditions to promote chondrogenesis. Three-dimensional cultures showed good viability during the 4 weeks of the experiment. As expected, samples cultured with chondrogenic inducers (compared to non-induced controls) stained strongly positive for toluidine blue (which stains glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) that are highly present in cartilage extracellular matrix) and expressed specific molecular markers, including collagen type I, II and X, according to Western Blot analysis. This protocol is easy to perform and can be used at research laboratories, industries and for educational purposes in laboratory courses.

Here, we present a protocol to obtain 3D-culture systems in self-assembling peptide scaffolds to promote the differentiation of dedifferentiated human articular chondrocytes into cartilage-like tissue.

A useful technique for culturing cells in a self-assembling nanofiber three-dimensional (3D) scaffold is described. This culture system recreates an ...