Name: a western blotting protocol for small numbers of hematopoietic stem cells
Uploaded: 2018-08-22T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Western Blotting Protocol for Small Numbers of Hematopoietic Stem Cells at JoVE.com

National Institutes of Health give R01 CA149976 (Nielsen) støttet dette arbejde.

Alle procedurer skal udføres i overensstemmelse med institutionelle animalske brug og pleje retningslinjer. Proceduren blev udviklet til analyse af murine hæmatopoietisk stilk og stamfader celler (HSCs og HPs), men kan tilpasses til analyse af andre cellepopulationer.
1. flow flowcytometri Isolation af Murine HSCs og HPs
<ol><li>Høste murine knoglemarv celler, som beskrevet i litteraturen6. NOTE: Data præsenteret i figur 1 og <stro...

<ol>
	<li>Krutzik, P. O., Clutter, M. R., Nolan, G. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coordinate+analysis+of+murine+immune+cell+surface+markers+and+intracellular+phosphoproteins+by+flow+cytometry.">Coordinate analysis of murine immune cell surface markers and intracellular phosphoproteins by flow cytometry.</a> J Immunol. 175 (4), 2357-2365 (2005).</li><li>Du, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling+profiling+at+the+single-cell+level+identifies+a+distinct+signaling+signature+in+murine+hematopoietic+stem+cells.">Signaling profiling at the single-cell level identifies a distinct signaling signature in murine hematopoietic stem cells.</a> Stem Cells. 30 (7), 1447-1454 (2012).</li><li>Signer, R. A., Magee, J. A., Salic, A., Morrison, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Haematopoietic+stem+cells+require+a+highly+regulated+protein+synthesis+rate.">Haematopoietic stem cells require a highly regulated protein synthesis rate.</a> Nature. 509 (7498), 49-54 (2014).</li><li>Wang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+differentiation+checkpoint+limits+hematopoietic+stem+cell+self-renewal+in+response+to+DNA+damage.">A differentiation checkpoint limits hematopoietic stem cell self-renewal in response to DNA damage.</a> Cell. 148 (5), 1001-1014 (2012).</li><li>Hoshii, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=mTORC1+is+essential+for+leukemia+propagation+but+not+stem+cell+self-renewal.">mTORC1 is essential for leukemia propagation but not stem cell self-renewal.</a> J Clin Invest. 122 (6), 2114-2129 (2012).</li><li>Signer, R. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+rate+of+protein+synthesis+in+hematopoietic+stem+cells+is+limited+partly+by+4E-BPs.">The rate of protein synthesis in hematopoietic stem cells is limited partly by 4E-BPs.</a> Genes Dev. 30 (15), 1698-1703 (2016).</li><li>Cai, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Runx1+deficiency+decreases+ribosome+biogenesis+and+confers+stress+resistance+to+hematopoietic+stem+and+progenitor+cells.">Runx1 deficiency decreases ribosome biogenesis and confers stress resistance to hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.</a> Cell Stem Cell. , (2015).</li><li>Loven, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Revisiting+global+gene+expression+analysis.">Revisiting global gene expression analysis.</a> Cell. 151 (3), 476-482 (2012).</li><li>JoVE Science Education Database. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+a+Hemoacytometer+to+Count+Cells.">Using a Hemoacytometer to Count Cells.</a> Basic Methods in Cellular and Molecular Biology. , (2017).</li><li>JoVE Science Education Database. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separating+Protein+with+SDS-PAGE.">Separating Protein with SDS-PAGE.</a> Basic Methods in Cellular and Molecular Biology. , (2017).</li><li>JoVE Science Education Database. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Western+Blot.">The Western Blot.</a> Basic Methods in Cellular and Molecular Biology. , (2017).</li><li>Jackson, R. J., Hellen, C. U., Pestova, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanism+of+eukaryotic+translation+initiation+and+principles+of+its+regulation.">The mechanism of eukaryotic translation initiation and principles of its regulation.</a> Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 11 (2), 113-127 (2010).</li><li>Eaton, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+guide+to+modern+quantitative+fluorescent+western+blotting+with+troubleshooting+strategies.">A guide to modern quantitative fluorescent western blotting with troubleshooting strategies.</a> J Vis Exp. (93), e52099 (2014).</li></ol>

Western Blotting er en almindelig teknik til påvisning af specifikke proteiner og aktivering af signaling veje i væv eller celler. Ved at indføre små justeringer til et almindeligt anvendte procedure, var vi købedygtig rutinemæssigt opdager 15 forskellige proteiner (Table of Materials) 15.000 HSCs, og i nogle tilfælde i så få som 500 HSCs. The most kritiske trin i denne protokol er: 1) præcist at tælle cellerne, 2) minimere antallet af overførsler mellem rør og 3) lysing celler direkte med L...

Hæmatopoietisk stamceller (HSCs) er selvstændig fornyelse celler, der kan give anledning til alle blod lineages. De er relativt sjældne celler i knoglemarven, rendering biokemiske analyser vanskeligt. Tilgange egnet til at analysere sjældne celler, såsom flowcytometri, har været særdeles nyttig for kvantificering relative mængder af celle overflade markører og intracellulære proteiner. Men analysen af intracellulære proteiner kræver anvendelsen af celle permeabilization procedurer til at aktivere antistof adgang, og ikke alle celle overflade epitoper overleve disse procedurer1,2. Derudover antistoffer, der diskriminerer mellem forskellige proteinprodukter isoformer eller kavalergang er ikke ofte tilgængelige for flowcytometri, og derfor efterforskerne stadig stole på Western blotting for visse typer af analyser.
Western blot analyse af cellelysater er en rutinemæssig procedure i de fleste laboratorier. Celler kan blive renset indfødte betingelser, der bevarer epitoper af cellens overflade molekyler, og cellelysater kan efterfølgende udarbejdet og analyseret. Analyse af proteiner i sjældne primære celle populationer af Western duppes kan dog kræve euthanizing stort antal dyr at få nok celler. Ved at foretage små justeringer af flere trin, var en konventionel Western blotting protokol købedygtig opdager proteiner i et relativt lille antal af HSCs (500-15.000, afhængigt af protein af interesse). Tilpasningerne, der omfatter præcist tælle de celler, omhyggeligt håndtering celle pellet, reducere overførsler af celler mellem rør til at minimere celletab, og lysing et defineret antal celler med en koncentreret lastning buffer indeholdende proteasom og fosfatase hæmmere. Mange publicerede rapporter omfatter Western blotting fremstillet med 20.000 eller mere HSCs3,4,5,6,7; Denne enkle procedure vil reducere antallet af celler og forsøgsdyr, der kræves for at producere tilsvarende data af mellem 4 og 40 fold. Protokollen er designet til at normalisere resultater på grundlag af per celle, i stedet for en intern kontrol. Dette giver mulighed for påvisning af samlede reduktioner i protein niveauer, der kan blive overset, hvis dataene er normaliseret til en intern kontrol. Betydningen af normalisering på pr. celle grundlag blev beskrevet for analysen af gen expression data8, og det samme gælder at kvantificere proteiner af vestlige skamplet. Denne optimerede protokol skal være nyttig for alle, der skulle analysere lille antal celler.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP166-500</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TEMED</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP150-20</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30% Acrylamidel Bis solution</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610158</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5M Tris-HCl pH8.8</td>
			<td>TEKNOVA</td>
			<td>T1588</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.0M Tris-HCl pH6.8</td>
			<td>TEKNOVA</td>
			<td>T1068</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium Persulfate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP179-25</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mini-protean 3 comb</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1653360</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td> 
			Mini-PROTEAN Tetra Cell</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1658005EDU&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Transfer System</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1704155EDU</td>
			<td>transfer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PowerPac HC Power Supply</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1645052EDU&#160;</td>
			<td>electrophoresis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imaging System</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1708195&#160;</td>
			<td>signal detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4x Laemmli Sample Buffer</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610747EDU&#160;</td>
			<td>sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x Tris/Glycine/SDS Electrophoresis Buffer</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610732EDU&#160;</td>
			<td>electrophoresis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-Mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610710EDU</td>
			<td>sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;RTA Mini PVDF Transfer Kit, for 40 blots</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1704272&#160;</td>
			<td>transfer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease Inhibitor Cocktail</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>11697498001</td>
			<td>sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphatase Inhibitor Cocktailrs</td>
			<td>Gold Biotechnology</td>
			<td>GB-450-1</td>
			<td>sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EIF4G</td>
			<td>Cell signaling</td>
			<td>2469</td>
			<td>WB antibody, validated in 1000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): Fig2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-Rps6</td>
			<td>Cell signaling</td>
			<td>4858</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 1000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): Fig2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>actin(HRP conjugated)</td>
			<td>abcam</td>
			<td>ab49900</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 500 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:5000 
			reference(figure): Fig1, Fig2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LC-3</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab48394</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (Fig5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>S6</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>2317</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (Fig4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4EBP1</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>9644</td>
			<td>WB antibody, validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (Fig4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-4EBP1</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>2855</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (Fig4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TSC2</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>4308</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (Fig4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HSP90</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>4877</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (Fig5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PTEN</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>9188</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (FigS1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mTOR</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>2983</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (FigS1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-mTOR</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>5536</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (FigS1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PP2AB</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>4953</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (FigS1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-AMPKa</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>2535</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:1000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (FigS1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>actin</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz</td>
			<td>sc-47778</td>
			<td>WB antibody,validated in 15000 cells 
			antibody concentration: 1:3000 
			reference(figure): ref5 (Fig4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>lineage depletion kit (mouse)</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotec</td>
			<td>130-090-858</td>
			<td>hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LS columns</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotec</td>
			<td>130-041-305</td>
			<td>hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SCF</td>
			<td>PeproTech</td>
			<td>250-03</td>
			<td>phosphorylation stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>APC-Cy7 c-kit antibody</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>A15423</td>
			<td>cell sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-B220</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>48-0452-82</td>
			<td>cell sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-CD3e</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>48-0031-82</td>
			<td>cell sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-Mac1</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>48-0112-82</td>
			<td>cell sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-Gr1</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>48-5931-82</td>
			<td>cell sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-Ter119</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>48-5921-82</td>
			<td>cell sorting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spacer Plates with 1.0 mm Integrated Spacers</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1653311</td>
			<td>&#160;SDS-PAGE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA</td>
			<td>Research Products International</td>
			<td>A30075</td>
			<td>membrane blocking</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>serum</td>
			<td>Atlanta Biologicals</td>
			<td>A12450</td>
			<td>medium supplement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cell counter</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>AMQAF1000</td>
			<td>cell counting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>hemocytometer</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>&#160;S17040</td>
			<td>cell counting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>flim</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific</td>
			<td>E3012</td>
			<td>signal detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>medical film processor</td>
			<td>Konica</td>
			<td>SRC-101A</td>
			<td>signal detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Supersignal West Femto Maximum Sensitivity Substrate</td>
			<td>Therom Scientific</td>
			<td>34096</td>
			<td>signal detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Allegra X-15R Centrifuge (Rotor SX4750A)</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>X-15R</td>
			<td>sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BLUEstain protein ladder</td>
			<td>Gold Biotechnology</td>
			<td>P007-500</td>
			<td>electrophoresis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cell sorter</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>FACSAria II</td>
			<td>sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incublock</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific</td>
			<td>I0510</td>
			<td>electrophoresis</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a western blotting protocol for small numbers of hematopoietic stem cells

Hæmatopoietisk stamceller (HSCs) er sjælden celler, med musen knoglemarv indeholdende kun ~ 25.000 fænotypiske lang sigt genopretning HSCs. En Western blotting protokol blev optimeret og velegnet til analyse af et lille antal HSCs (500-15.000 celler). Fænotypisk HSCs blev renset, præcist tælles og direkte mængden i Laemmli prøvebuffer. Lysates som indeholder samme antal celler blev analyseret af sodium dodecyl sulfat polyacrylamid gelelektroforese (SDS-PAGE), og skamplet blev udarbejdet og behandlet følgende standard Western blotting protokoller. Ved hjælp af denne protokol, 2,000-5,000 HSCs kan analyseres rutinemæssigt, og i nogle tilfælde der kan indhentes data fra så få som 500 celler, i forhold til de 20.000 til 40.000 celler rapporteret i de fleste publikationer. Denne protokol skal generelt gælder for andre hæmatopoietisk celler, og gør det muligt for rutineanalyse af et lille antal celler ved hjælp af standard laboratorieprocedurer.

Repræsentative resultater fra 500-2.000 renset HSCs og HPs er vist i figur 1 og figur 2. Β-actin signalet i figur 1 kan registreres fra så få som 500 HSCs og HPs renset fra knoglemarven af en mus. Bemærk, at indlæse lysates i 1,5 mm brønde produceret en meget stærkere signal fra 500 HPs end lastning i 3,0 mm brønde. Figur 2 er en Western blot af EIF4G og fosfory...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Western Blotting Protocol for Small Numbers of Hematopoietic Stem Cells at JoVE.com

A Western Blotting Protocol for Small Numbers of Hematopoietic Stem Cells

En standard Western blotting protokol var optimeret til at analysere så få som 500 hæmatopoietisk stamceller eller stamceller. Optimering indebærer omhyggelig håndtering af cell sample, begrænse overførsler mellem rør og direkte lysing celler i Laemmli prøvebuffer.

En Western Blotting-protokollen for et lille antal hæmatopoietisk stamceller

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are rare cells, with the mouse bone marrow containing only ~25,000 phenotypic long term repopulating HSCs. A Western ...

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Robust sammenligning af Protein niveauer på tværs af væv og udvikling ved hjælp af standardiserede kvantitative Western Blotting

Western blotting is a technique that is commonly used to detect and quantify protein expression. Over the years, this technique has led to many advances ...

A Semi-High-Throughput Adaptation of the NADH-Coupled ATPase Assay for Screening Small Molecule Inhibitors

En semi-High-gennemløb tilpasning af NADH-koblede ATPase assay til screening små molekyle hæmmere

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would ...

A Rapidly Incremented Tethered-Swimming Maximal Protocol for Cardiorespiratory Assessment of Swimmers

En hurtigt forøget Tethered-Svømning Maximal protokol for cardiorespiratory vurdering af svømmere

Incremental exercise testing is the standard means of assessing cardiorespiratory capacity of endurance athletes. While the maximal rate of oxygen ...

A High-Throughput Enzyme-Coupled Activity Assay to Probe Small Molecule Interaction with the dNTPase SAMHD1

Sterile alpha motif and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) is a pivotal regulator of intracellular deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pools, as this ...

Development of a Lateral Flow Immunochromatographic Strip for Rapid and Quantitative Detection of Small Molecule Compounds

Udvikling af en Lateral Flow immunokromatisk strimmel til hurtig og kvantitativ påvisning af små molekyleforbindelser

Membrane-based lateral flow immunochromatographic strips (ICSs) are useful tools for low-cost self-diagnosis and have been efficiently applied to toxin, ...

Generating Self-Assembling Human Heart Organoids Derived from Pluripotent Stem Cells

Generering af selvopsamlende menneskehjerteorganoider afledt af pluripotente stamceller

The ability to study human cardiac development in health and disease is highly limited by the capacity to model the complexity of the human heart in ...

Synthesis of Masarimycin, a Small Molecule Inhibitor of Gram-Positive Bacterial Growth

Syntese af Masarimycin, en lille molekylehæmmer af grampositiv bakterievækst

Peptidoglycan (PG) in the cell wall of bacteria is a unique macromolecular structure that confers shape, and protection from the surrounding environment. ...