The following protocols are accepted under the University of Maryland&#39;s Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee as well as the Institutional Review Board. The protocols follow federal, state and local standards, and the guidelines set out by the University of Maryland Policy on Biosafety.
1. Dissection of Eye Sample
<ol>
	<li>Obtain an eye sample from local slaughterhouse or tissue bank. If an entire eye globe is obtained, immediately extract the lens, attached zonules, and vitreous. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The specific details described below pertain to both porcine and human eyes.
	<ol>
		<li>Using disinfected surgical scissors and forceps, cut and remove all excess tissue surrounding the sclera.</li>
		<li>Firmly hold the eye on its side and, using a razor blade, make a small incision along the side of the eye 3 mm away from the cornea. Make the cut deep enough to have reached the vitreous inside the eye.</li>
		<li>Using scissors, carefully cut further along the incision around the circumference of the eye. Avoid puncturing the lens. A representative image is shown in Figure 2A.</li>
		<li>Once the outside circumference of the eye has been cut, remove the posterior tissue of the eye using forceps. Isolate the lens, zonules, ciliary body, and the attached vitreous with forceps. A representative image is shown in Figure 2B.</li>
		<li>Using the scissors and forceps, remove excess vitreous so the lens can lay flat on the MLS. 
		NOTE: In cases of corneal transplant, the corneal button is used in surgery and the remainder of the globe is available for research purposes. However, this partial globe can still be used in the tissue preparation of the lens stretcher setup. If only the posterior is obtained, only perform step 1.1.4&#8211;1.1.5.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Disinfect all used equipment post-dissection in 15% bleach solution for 30 min.</li>
</ol>
2. Trial Assembly of the Manual Lens Stretcher
<ol>
	<li>Insert the 10 mm shoe bottoms and the corresponding shoe tops into the bottom plate of the MLS so there remains a 5 mm gap between the back wall of the shoe indent and the shoe itself.</li>
	<li>Align the top and bottom plates, snapping the plates together; the device is now in the unstretched position.</li>
	<li>Insert the plates into the plate case and the stopper screw into the hole located on the side of the bottom plate.</li>
	<li>Insert the plate case into the base and place the wrench into the aligned indents.</li>
	<li>Twist the wrench clockwise until it reaches the stopping screw to contract the shoes, and twist back counter-clockwise to return the shoes to the original unstretched position.</li>
</ol>
3. Mounting of the Lens
<ol>
	<li>Insert the 10 mm shoe bottoms into the bottom plate in the MLS so that a 5 mm gap between remains the back wall of the shoe indent and the shoe itself.</li>
	<li>Using curved forceps, place the extracted lens face up on the middle of the bottom plate so that the shoes are supporting the lens over the central hole.</li>
	<li>Snap the corresponding top of the shoes into place, clipping only the zonules and the vitreous. Visually ensure that the lens stays as centered as possible on the bottom plate.</li>
	<li>Repeat Steps 2.3&#8211;2.4.</li>
</ol>
4. Measurement of the Lens
<ol>
	<li>Place an imaging system directly above the apparatus in order to capture videos and pictures of the stretching process. Be sure to include a ruler in the frame of the picture to accurately size and scale images in post-processing. 
	NOTE: Any suitable imaging system is sufficient for this step; here we use a 12 megapixel, autofocusing smartphone one foot from the sample.</li>
	<li>Firmly yet smoothly, rotate the wrench in the clockwise direction to stretch the lens. Figure 3 shows representative images at the unstretched and stretched state.</li>
	<li>After photographing the stretched lens, rotate the wrench in the counter-clockwise direction to restore the sample to its resting state. 
	NOTE: It is imperative that the measurement of the lens is performed in a timely manner in order to minimize the dehydration of the lens.</li>
	<li>Clearly photograph the final resting state of the lens.</li>
</ol>
5. Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Upload the image to ImageJ and, use the &#34;point&#34; feature to select at least 40 points around the circumference of the lens as shown in Figure 4A. Use the &#34;Analyze&#34; &#8594; &#34;Measure&#34; option to yield the location of each selected point.</li>
	<li>Fit (using software e.g. MATLAB) the location points in order to yield a radius and chi-square of the fit as shown in Figure 4B. Convert the pixel radius and error into metrics using the photographed ruler.</li>
	<li>Perform paired two tailed t-test to comparing an individual lens before and after stretching from the MLS.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Von Helmholtz, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Uber+die+akkommodation+des+auges.">Uber die akkommodation des auges.</a> Arch Ophthal. 1, 1-74 (1855).</li><li>Schachar, R. A., Black, T. D., Kash, R. L., Cudmore, D. P., Schanzlin, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanism+of+accommodation+and+presbyopia+in+the+primate.">The mechanism of accommodation and presbyopia in the primate.</a> Ann Ophthalmol. 27, 58-67 (1995).</li><li>Glasser, A., Campbell, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Presbyopia+and+the+optical+changes+in+the+human+crystalline+lens+with+age.">Presbyopia and the optical changes in the human crystalline lens with age.</a> Vision Res. 38 (2), 209-229 (1998).</li><li>Reilly, M. A., Hamilton, P. D., Perry, G., Ravi, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+the+behavior+and+natural+and+refilled+porcine+lenses+in+a+robotic+lens+stretcher.">Comparison of the behavior and natural and refilled porcine lenses in a robotic lens stretcher.</a> Exp Eye Res. 88, 483-494 (2009).</li><li>Langenbucher, A., Huber, S., Nguyen, N. X., Seitz, B., Gusek-Schneider, G. C., K&#252;chle, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+accommodation+after+implantation+of+an+accommodating+posterior+chamber+intraocular+lens.">Measurement of accommodation after implantation of an accommodating posterior chamber intraocular lens.</a> J Cataract Refract Surg. 29 (4), 677-685 (2003).</li><li>Ehrmann, K., Ho, A., Parel, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomechanical+analysis+of+the+accommodative+apparatus+in+primates.">Biomechanical analysis of the accommodative apparatus in primates.</a> Clin Exp Optom. 91 (4), 411 (2008).</li><li>Pinilla Cort&#233;s, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+Protocols+for+Ex+Vivo+Lens+Stretching+Tests+to+Investigate+the+Biomechanics+of+the+Human+Accommodation+Apparatus.">Experimental Protocols for Ex Vivo Lens Stretching Tests to Investigate the Biomechanics of the Human Accommodation Apparatus.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 56 (5), 2926 (2015).</li><li>Fisher, R. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+elastic+constants+of+the+human+lens.">The elastic constants of the human lens.</a> J Physiol. 212 (1), 147-180 (1971).</li><li>Eppig, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomechanical+eye+model+and+measurement+setup+for+investigating+accommodating+intraocular+lenses.">Biomechanical eye model and measurement setup for investigating accommodating intraocular lenses.</a> Z Med Ohys. 23 (2), 144-152 (2013).</li><li>Manns, F., Parel, , et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Response+of+Human+and+Monkey+Lenses+in+a+Lens+Stretcher.">Response of Human and Monkey Lenses in a Lens Stretcher.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 48 (7), 3260 (2007).</li><li>Scarcelli, G., Kim, P., Yun, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+measurement+of+age-related+stiffening+in+the+crystalline+lens+by+Brillouin+optical+microscopy.">In vivo measurement of age-related stiffening in the crystalline lens by Brillouin optical microscopy.</a> Biophys J. 101 (6), 1539-1545 (2011).</li><li>Besner, S., Scarcelli, G., Pineda, R., Yun, S. -. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+Vivo+Brillouin+Analysis+of+the+Aging+Crystalline+Lens.">In Vivo Brillouin Analysis of the Aging Crystalline Lens.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 57 (13), 5093 (2016).</li><li>Cortes, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+Protocols+for+Ex+Vivo+Lens+Stretching+Tests+to+Investigate+the+Biomechanics+of+the+Human+Accommodation+Apparatus.">Experimental Protocols for Ex Vivo Lens Stretching Tests to Investigate the Biomechanics of the Human Accommodation Apparatus.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 56 (5), 2926-2932 (2015).</li><li>Bernal, A., Parel, J. -. M., Manns, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+Posterior+Zonular+Fiber+Attachment+on+the+Anterior+Hyaloid+Membrane.">Evidence for Posterior Zonular Fiber Attachment on the Anterior Hyaloid Membrane.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 47 (11), 4708 (2006).</li><li>Kammel, R., Ackermann, R., Mai, T., Damm, C., Nolte, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pig+Lenses+in+a+Lens+Stretcher.">Pig Lenses in a Lens Stretcher.</a> Optom Vis Sci. 89 (6), 908-915 (2012).</li><li>Hahn, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+Ex+Vivo+Porcine+Lens+Shape+During+Simulated+Accommodation,+Before+and+After+fs-Laser+Treatment.">Measurement of Ex Vivo Porcine Lens Shape During Simulated Accommodation, Before and After fs-Laser Treatment.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 56 (9), 5332-5343 (2015).</li><li>D'Antin, J. C., Cortes, L. P., Montenegro, G. A., Barraquer, R. I., Michael, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+a+portable+manual+stretching+device+to+simulate+accommodation.">Evaluation of a portable manual stretching device to simulate accommodation.</a> Acta Ophthalmol. 93 (255), (2015).</li><li>Pierscionek, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-related+response+of+human+lenses+to+stretching+forces.">Age-related response of human lenses to stretching forces.</a> Exp Eye Res. 60 (3), 325-332 (1995).</li><li>Marussich, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+Crystalline+Lens+Volume+During+Accommodation+in+a+Lens+Stretcher.">Measurement of Crystalline Lens Volume During Accommodation in a Lens Stretcher.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 56 (8), 4239 (2015).</li><li>Martinez-Enriquez, E., P&#233;rez-Merino, P., Velasco-Ocana, M., Marcos, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=OCT-based+full+crystalline+lens+shape+change+during+accommodation+in+vivo.">OCT-based full crystalline lens shape change during accommodation in vivo.</a> Biomed Opt Exp. 8 (2), 918-933 (2017).</li></ol>

AB has ownership interest in Bioniko Consulting LLC.

We have devised a novel method to provide an accurate and efficient way of studying the accommodation ability of the lens by utilizing a dual-piece clamping mechanism to couple the stretcher to the sample. During accommodation, the lens relaxes, and the diameter decreases in response to relaxation of the zonular fibers1,2,4,19. The method focuses on this phenomenon by clamping and controlling t...

Accommodation is the process by which the human eye is able to dynamically adjust the shape of its crystalline lens to see objects at far or close distances in sharp focus. Accommodation is an intrinsically biomechanical process. Upon neural stimulus, the ciliary muscles produce a force onto the ciliary body and to the zonule fibers that attach to the circumference of the lens capsule1,2. While there are different theories behind the biomechanics of accommodation, the most widely accepted is the Helmholtz hypothesis. According to the hypothesis, the lens is in a natural stretched state, corresponding to the thinnest shape of the lens which is optimal for the focus of distant objects. To change focus to closer objects, the ciliary muscles contract and the zonular fibers are relaxed. In turn, the lens thickens, increasing the anterior and posterior surface curvatures. This corresponds to an increase in dioptric power which is necessary for near vision, therefore, a shorter focal length1.
The ability to accommodate is compromised over time via a condition named presbyopia. Affecting everyone by age 50, presbyopia makes the eye unable to dynamically change focus from far to close distances3. To combat presbyopia, current methods are passive including corrective lenses and bifocals. While increasing one&#39;s ability to focus on close objects at few planes, such passive treatments cannot restore the dynamic focus ability of the lens4,5. In order to treat presbyopia efficiently, or possibly prevent it, there is an ongoing need to better understand accommodation.
To study lens accommodation, a number of devices have been developed to simulate the phenomenon ex vivo4,6,7,8,9. Spinning disks were first introduced to monitor the stretching of the lens via centrifugal forces8. To more faithfully replicate the phenomenon, lens stretching devices were gradually introduced and innovated. Using a lens stretcher, Manns et al. characterized the force required to accommodate the lens while correlating such to lens power and equatorial diameter9. Current understanding is that the lens stiffens with age, resulting in a reduced change in lens shape in response to an equal force from the ciliary body3,10,11,12.
Current lens stretchers often involve a complex setup, implementing electronics and programmable stretching rates, and requires the entire cadaver eyeball6,7,10,13. This requirement increases the cost per experiment to over $500.00 per eye and decreases sample availability. Here we present a method to replicate lens accommodation at low cost as the eye posterior totals around $200.00. While less sophisticated than many devices used today, the technique is much more cost effective and adoptable without compromising results. This method is centered around a manual lens stretcher (MLS) depicted in Figure 1, and uses a unique clamping system on the zonular fibers and a radial twisting method to expand the diameter of the lens. The physiological accuracy of the protocol is validated by the findings of Bernal et al., who studied the pathway by which the anterior and posterior zonular fibers are connected to the lens capsule14. Using the design of custom shoes which only require the lens, zonule, and ciliary body, we aimed to study lens biomechanics by replicating physiological accommodation.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Manual Lens Stretcher</td><td>Bioniko</td><td>MLS</td><td>Different animal species will require different shoe sizes</td></tr><tr><td>Porcine Eye Samples</td><td>George G. Ruppersberger; slaughterhouse</td><td>N/A</td><td>Whole eyeballs were obtained</td></tr><tr><td>Human Eye Samples</td><td>The National Disease Research Interchange</td><td>N/A</td><td>Posterior poles without corneas were ordered</td></tr><tr><td>Dissecting Scissors (5 1/2&#039;&#039; Straight)</td><td>Electron Microsopy Sciences</td><td>72960</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue Forceps (4 1/2&#039;&#039;)</td><td>Electron Microsopy Sciences</td><td>72960</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>iPhone 6s</td><td>Apple</td><td>N/A</td><td>Any imaging system with ~0.1 mm resolution will work</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Hypochorite</td><td>Clorox</td><td>Clorox Regular-Bleach</td><td>Any disinfectant will work</td></tr></tbody></table>

simulating the mechanics of lens accommodation via a manual lens stretcher

The goal of this protocol is to mimic the biomechanics of physiological accommodation in a cost-efficient, practical manner. Accommodation is achieved through the contraction of the ciliary body and relaxation of zonule fibers, which results in the thickening of the lens necessary for near vision. Here, we present a novel, simple method in which accommodation is replicated by tensing the zonules connected to the lens capsule via a manual lens stretcher (MLS). This method monitors the radial stretching achieved by a lens when subjected to a consistent force and allows for a comparison of accommodating lenses, which can be stretched, to non-accommodating lenses, which cannot be stretched. Importantly, the stretcher couples to the zonules directly, and not to the sclera of the eye, thus only requiring the lens, zonules, and ciliary body rather than the entire globe sample. This difference can significantly decrease the cost of acquiring donor cadaver lenses by about 62% compared to acquiring an entire globe.

Porcine eyes, a common sample for studying presbyopia via lens stretching4,15, were obtained, (n = 10) from a local slaughterhouse and this protocol was used to observe the accommodation ability of the lenses. Figure 5A shows the comparison of the porcine lens before and after stretching via the MLS. There was an average 0.19 &#177; 0.07 mm increase in lens radius when stretched (...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simulating the Mechanics of Lens Accommodation via a Manual Lens Stretcher at JoVE.com

Simulating the Mechanics of Lens Accommodation via a Manual Lens Stretcher

We present an efficient method of studying lens accommodation by using a manual lens stretcher. The protocol mimics physiological accommodation by pulling the zonules connected around the lens capsule, thereby, stretching the lens.

The goal of this protocol is to mimic the biomechanics of physiological accommodation in a cost-efficient, practical manner. Accommodation is achieved ...

simulating-mechanics-lens-accommodation-via-manual-lens

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

6.7K Views.  University of Maryland. We present an efficient method of studying lens accommodation by using a manual lens stretcher. The protocol mimics physiological accommodation by pulling the zonules connected around the lens capsule, thereby, stretching the lens.

Video: Simulating the Mechanics of Lens Accommodation via a Manual Lens Stretcher

Stretching Short Sequences of DNA with Constant Force Axial Optical Tweezers

Single-molecule techniques for stretching DNA of contour lengths less than a kilobase are fraught with experimental difficulties. However, many interesting biological events such as histone binding and protein-mediated looping of DNA1,2, occur on this length scale. In recent years, the mechanical properties of DNA have been shown to play a significant role in fundamental cellular processes like the packaging of DNA into compact nucleosomes and chromatin fibers3,4. Clearly, it is then important to understand the mechanical properties of short stretches of DNA. In this paper, we provide a practical guide to a single-molecule optical tweezing technique that we have developed to study the mechanical behavior of DNA with contour lengths as short as a few hundred basepairs.
The major hurdle in stretching short segments of DNA is that conventional optical tweezers are generally designed to apply force in a direction lateral to the stage5,6, (see Fig. 1). In this geometry, the angle between the bead and the coverslip, to which the DNA is tethered, becomes very steep for submicron length DNA. The axial position must now be accounted for, which can be a challenge, and, since the extension drags the microsphere closer to the coverslip, steric effects are enhanced. Furthermore, as a result of the asymmetry of the microspheres, lateral extensions will generate varying levels of torque due to rotation of the microsphere within the optical trap since the direction of the reactive force changes during the extension.
Alternate methods for stretching submicron DNA run up against their own unique hurdles. For instance, a dual-beam optical trap is limited to stretching DNA of around a wavelength, at which point interference effects between the two traps and from light scattering between the microspheres begin to pose a significant problem. Replacing one of the traps with a micropipette would most likely suffer from similar challenges. While one could directly use the axial potential to stretch the DNA, an active feedback scheme would be needed to apply a constant force and the bandwidth of this will be quite limited, especially at low forces.
We circumvent these fundamental problems by directly pulling the DNA away from the coverslip by using a constant force axial optical tweezers7,8. This is achieved by trapping the bead in a linear region of the optical potential, where the optical force is constant-the strength of which can be tuned by adjusting the laser power. Trapping within the linear region also serves as an all optical force-clamp on the DNA that extends for nearly 350 nm in the axial direction. We simultaneously compensate for thermal and mechanical drift by finely adjusting the position of the stage so that a reference microsphere stuck to the coverslip remains at the same position and focus, allowing for a virtually limitless observation period.

We illustrate the use of a constant force axial optical tweezers to explore the mechanical properties of short DNA molecules. By stretching DNA axially, we minimize steric hindrances and artifacts arising in conventional lateral manipulation, allowing us to study DNA molecules as short as ~100 nm.

Single-molecule techniques for stretching DNA of contour lengths  less than a kilobase are fraught with experimental difficulties. However, many ...

Stretching Micropatterned Cells on a PDMS Membrane

Mechanical forces exerted on cells and/or tissues play a major role in numerous processes. We have developed a device to stretch cells plated on a PolyDiMethylSiloxane (PDMS) membrane, compatible with imaging. This technique is reproducible and versatile. The PDMS membrane can be micropatterned in order to confine cells or tissues to a specific geometry. The first step is to print micropatterns onto the PDMS membrane with a deep UV technique. The PDMS membrane is then mounted on a mechanical stretcher. A chamber is bound on top of the membrane with biocompatible grease to allow gliding during the stretch. The cells are seeded and allowed to spread for several hours on the micropatterns. The sample can be stretched and unstretched multiple times with the use of a micrometric screw. It takes less than a minute to apply the stretch to its full extent (around 30%). The technique presented here does not include a motorized device, which is necessary for applying repeated stretch cycles quickly and/or computer controlled stretching, but this can be implemented. Stretching of cells or tissue can be of interest for questions related to cell forces, cell response to mechanical stress or tissue morphogenesis. This video presentation will show how to avoid typical problems that might arise when doing this type of seemingly simple experiment.

This manuscript presents a technique to apply or release forces on adherent cells or tissues using unidirectional stretching.

Mechanical forces exerted on cells and/or tissues  play a major role in numerous processes. We have developed a device to stretch  cells plated on a ...

A Novel Stretching Platform for Applications in Cell and Tissue Mechanobiology

Tools that allow the application of mechanical forces to cells and tissues or that can quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues have contributed dramatically to the understanding of basic mechanobiology. These techniques have been extensively used to demonstrate how the onset and progression of various diseases are heavily influenced by mechanical cues. This article presents a multi-functional biaxial stretching (BAXS) platform that can either mechanically stimulate single cells or quantify the mechanical stiffness of tissues. The BAXS platform consists of four voice coil motors that can be controlled independently. Single cells can be cultured on a flexible substrate that can be attached to the motors allowing one to expose the cells to complex, dynamic, and spatially varying strain fields. Conversely, by incorporating a force load cell, one can also quantify the mechanical properties of primary tissues as they are exposed to deformation cycles. In both cases, a proper set of clamps must be designed and mounted to the BAXS platform motors in order to firmly hold the flexible substrate or the tissue of interest. The BAXS platform can be mounted on an inverted microscope to perform simultaneous transmitted light and/or fluorescence imaging to examine the structural or biochemical response of the sample during stretching experiments. This article provides experimental details of the design and usage of the BAXS platform and presents results for single cell and whole tissue studies. The BAXS platform was used to measure the deformation of nuclei in single mouse myoblast cells in response to substrate strain and to measure the stiffness of isolated mouse aortas. The BAXS platform is a versatile tool that can be combined with various optical microscopies in order to provide novel mechanobiological insights at the sub-cellular, cellular and whole tissue levels.

We present in this article a novel stretching platform that can be used to investigate single cell responses to complex anisotropic biaxial mechanical deformation and quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues.

Tools that allow the application of mechanical forces to cells and tissues or that can quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues have ...

Live Cell Imaging during Mechanical Stretch

There is currently a significant interest in understanding how cells and tissues respond to mechanical stimuli, but current approaches are limited in their capability for measuring responses in real time in live cells or viable tissue. A protocol was developed with the use of a cell actuator to distend live cells grown on or tissues attached to an elastic substrate while imaging with confocal and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Preliminary studies show that tonic stretching of human bronchial epithelial cells caused a significant increase in the production of mitochondrial superoxide. Moreover, using this protocol, alveolar epithelial cells were stretched and imaged, which showed direct damage to the epithelial cells by overdistention simulating one form of lung injury in vitro. A protocol to conduct AFM nano-indentation on stretched cells is also provided.

A novel imaging protocol was developed using a custom motor-driven mechanical actuator to allow the measurement of real time responses to mechanical strain in live cells. Relevant to mechanobiology, the system can apply strains up to 20% while allowing near real-time imaging with confocal or atomic force microscopy.

There is currently a significant interest in understanding how cells and tissues respond to mechanical stimuli, but current approaches are limited in ...

Synthesis of Soft Polysiloxane-urea Elastomers for Intraocular Lens Application

This study discusses a synthesis route for soft polysiloxane-based urea (PSU) elastomers for their applications as accommodating intraocular lenses (a-IOLs). Aminopropyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMS) were previously prepared via the ring-chain equilibration of the cyclic siloxane octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4) and 1,3-bis(3-aminopropyl)-tetramethyldisiloxane (APTMDS). Phenyl groups were introduced into the siloxane backbone via the copolymerization of D4 and 2,4,6,8-tetramethyl-2,4,6,8-tetraphenyl-cyclotetrasiloxane (D4Me,Ph). These polydimethyl-methyl-phenyl-siloxane-block copolymers were synthesized for increasing the refractive indices of polysiloxanes. For applications as an a-IOL, the refractive index of the polysiloxanes must be equivalent to that of a young human eye lens. The polysiloxane molecular weight is controlled by the ratio of the cyclic siloxane to the endblocker APTMDS. The transparency of the PSU elastomers is examined by the transmittance measurement of films between 200 and 750 nm, using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Transmittance values at 750 nm (upper end of the visible spectrum) are plotted against the PDMS molecular weight, and &#62; 90% of the transmittance is observed until a molecular weight of 18,000 g&#183;mol&#8722;1. Mechanical properties of the PSU elastomers are investigated using stress-strain tests on die-cut dog-bone-shaped specimens. For evaluating mechanical stability, mechanical hysteresis is measured by repeatedly stretching (10x) the specimens to 5% and 100% elongation. Hysteresis considerably decreases with the increase in the PDMS molecular weight. In vitro cytotoxicity of some selected PSU elastomers is evaluated using an MTS cell viability assay. The methods described herein permit the synthesis of a soft, transparent, and noncytotoxic PSU elastomer with a refractive index approximately equal to that of a young human eye lens.

This study describes synthetic routes for aminopropyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxanes and polydimethyl-methyl-phenyl-siloxane-block copolymers and for soft polysiloxane-based urea (PSU) elastomers. It presents the application of PSUs as accommodating an intraocular lens. An evaluation method for in vitro cytotoxicity is also described.

This study discusses a synthesis route for soft polysiloxane-based urea (PSU) elastomers for their applications as accommodating intraocular lenses ...

Chemistry

Production of a Strain-Measuring Device with an Improved 3D Printer

A traditional strain measurement sensor needs to be electrified and is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. In order to solve the fluctuations in the analog electrical signal in a traditional strain gauge operation, a new strain measurement method is presented here. It uses a photographic technique to display the strain change by amplifying the change of the pointer displacement of the mechanism. A visual polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) lens with a focal length of 7.16 mm was added to a smartphone camera to generate a lens group acting as a microscope to capture images. It had an equivalent focal length of 5.74 mm. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and nylon amplifiers were used to test the influence of different materials on the sensor performance. The production of the amplifiers and PDMS lens is based on improved 3D printing technology. The data obtained were compared with the results from finite element analysis (FEA) to verify their validity. The sensitivity of the ABS amplifier was 36.03 &plusmn; 1.34 &#181;&epsilon;/&#181;m, and the sensitivity of the nylon amplifier was 36.55 &plusmn; 0.53 &#181;&epsilon;/&#181;m.

This work presents a strain measurement sensor consisting of an amplification mechanism and a polydimethylsiloxane microscope manufactured using an improved 3D printer.

A traditional strain measurement sensor needs to be electrified and is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. In order to solve the fluctuations in ...

Engineering

Controlled Strain of 3D Hydrogels under Live Microscopy Imaging

External forces are an important factor in tissue formation, development, and maintenance. The effects of these forces are often studied using specialized in vitro stretching methods. Various available systems use 2D substrate-based stretchers, while the accessibility of 3D techniques to strain soft hydrogels, is more restricted. Here, we describe a method that allows external stretching of soft hydrogels from their circumference, using an elastic silicone strip as the sample carrier. The stretching system utilized in this protocol is constructed from 3D-printed parts and low-cost electronics, making it simple and easy to replicate in other labs. The experimental process begins with polymerizing thick (&#62;100 &#956;m) soft fibrin hydrogels (Elastic Modulus of ~100 Pa) in a cut-out at the center of a silicone strip. Silicone-gel constructs are then attached to the printed-stretching device and placed on the confocal microscope stage. Under live microscopy the stretching device is activated, and the gels are imaged at various stretch magnitudes. Image processing is then used to quantify the resulting gel deformations, demonstrating relatively homogenous strains and fiber alignment throughout the gel&#8217;s 3D thickness (Z-axis). Advantages of this method include the ability to strain extremely soft hydrogels in 3D while executing in situ microscopy, and the freedom to manipulate the geometry and size of the sample according to the user&#8217;s needs. Additionally, with proper adaptation, this method can be used to stretch other types of hydrogels (e.g., collagen, polyacrylamide or polyethylene glycol) and can allow for analysis of cells and tissue response to external forces under more biomimetic 3D conditions.

The presented method involves uniaxial stretching of 3D soft hydrogels embedded in silicone rubber while allowing live confocal microscopy. Characterization of the external and internal hydrogel strains as well as fiber alignment are demonstrated. The device and protocol developed can assess the response of cells to various strain regimes.

External forces are an important factor in tissue formation, development, and maintenance. The effects of these forces are often studied using specialized ...

Biomechanical Characterization of Porcine Ocular Lens with Automated Compression

Automated Compression Testing of the Ocular Lens

The biomechanical properties of the ocular lens are essential to its function as a variable power optical element. These properties change dramatically with age in the human lens, resulting in a loss of near vision called presbyopia. However, the mechanisms of these changes remain unknown. Lens compression offers a relatively simple method for assessing the lens' biomechanical stiffness in a qualitative sense and, when coupled with appropriate analytical techniques, can help quantify biomechanical properties. A variety of lens compression tests have been performed to date, including both manual and automated, but these methods inconsistently apply key aspects of biomechanical testing such as preconditioning, loading rates, and time between measurements. This paper describes a fully automated lens compression test wherein a motorized stage is synchronized with a camera to capture the force, displacement, and shape of the lens throughout a preprogrammed loading protocol. A characteristic elastic modulus may then be calculated from these data. While demonstrated here using porcine lenses, the approach is appropriate for the compression of lenses of any species.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Understanding of Age-Related Lens Stiffness Changes 

We present an automated method for characterizing the effective elastic modulus of an ocular lens using a compression test.

The biomechanical properties of the ocular lens are essential to its function as a variable power optical element. These properties change dramatically ...

Biological Preparation and Mechanical Technique for Determining Viscoelastic Properties of Zonular Fibers

Elasticity is essential to the function of tissues such as blood vessels, muscles, and lungs. This property is derived mostly from the extracellular matrix (ECM), the protein meshwork that binds cells and tissues together. How the elastic properties of an ECM network relate to its composition, and whether the relaxation properties of the ECM play a physiological role, are questions that have yet to be fully addressed. Part of the challenge lies in the complex architecture of most ECM systems and the difficulty in isolating ECM components without compromising their structure. One exception is the zonule, an ECM system found in the eye of vertebrates. The zonule comprises fibers hundreds to thousands of micrometers in length that span the cell-free space between the lens and the eyewall. In this report, we describe a mechanical technique that takes advantage of the highly organized structure of the zonule to quantify its viscoelastic properties and to determine the contribution of individual protein components. The method involves dissection of a fixed eye to expose the lens and the zonule and employs a pull-up technique that stretches the zonular fibers equally while their tension is monitored. The technique is relatively inexpensive yet sensitive enough to detect alterations in viscoelastic properties of zonular fibers in mice lacking specific zonular proteins or with aging. Although the method presented here is designed primarily for studying ocular development and disease, it could also serve as an experimental model for exploring broader questions regarding the viscoelastic properties of elastic ECM&#39;s and the role of external factors such as ionic concentration, temperature, and interactions with signaling molecules.

The protocol describes a method for the study of extracellular matrix viscoelasticity and its dependence on protein composition or environmental factors. The matrix system targeted is the mouse zonule. The performance of the method is demonstrated by comparing the viscoelastic behavior of wild-type zonular fibers with those lacking microfibril-associated glycoprotein-1.

Elasticity is essential to the function of tissues such as blood vessels, muscles, and lungs. This property is derived mostly from the extracellular ...

Medicine

Sequential Application of Glass Coverslips to Assess the Compressive Stiffness of the Mouse Lens: Strain and Morphometric Analyses

The eye lens is a transparent organ that refracts and focuses light to form a clear image on the retina. In humans, ciliary muscles contract to deform the lens, leading to an increase in the lens&#39; optical power to focus on nearby objects, a process known as accommodation. Age-related changes in lens stiffness have been linked to presbyopia, a reduction in the lens&#39; ability to accommodate, and, by extension, the need for reading glasses. Even though mouse lenses do not accommodate or develop presbyopia, mouse models can provide an invaluable genetic tool for understanding lens pathologies, and the accelerated aging observed in mice enables the study of age-related changes in the lens. This protocol demonstrates a simple, precise, and cost-effective method for determining mouse lens stiffness, using glass coverslips to apply sequentially increasing compressive loads onto the lens. Representative data confirm that mouse lenses become stiffer with age, like human lenses. This method is highly reproducible and can potentially be scaled up to mechanically test lenses from larger animals.

Age-related increases in eye lens stiffness are linked to presbyopia. This protocol describes a simple, cost-effective method for measuring mouse lens stiffness. Mouse lenses, like human lenses, become stiffer with age. This method is precise and can be adapted for lenses from larger animals.

The eye lens is a transparent organ that refracts and focuses light to form a clear image on the retina. In humans, ciliary muscles contract to deform the ...

Simulating the Mechanics of Lens Accommodation via a Manual Lens Stretcher

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