Dette arbejde blev støttet af tilskud fra National sundhed og Medical Research Rådet (NHMRC) til H-JZ. TMBW er en modtager af en Australien Postgraduate Award fra den australske regering og Ann Henderson Top-Up stipendium fra australske Rotary sundhed i partner med Rotary i Virum og Spis efter en kur.

Alle dyreforsøg blev godkendt af University of Melbourne dyr etisk komité.
Bemærk: Den rækkefølge, konstruktion og generation protokol for den adenoviral vektorer pAnnonce-CMV-Td-Tom, pAnnonce-CMV-normal god landbrugspraksis og pAd-CAGA12- Luc/Td-Tom har været tidligere beskrevet11,12, 13. Alle vektorer er kommercielt tilgængelige.
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<ol>
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W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+transforming+growth+factor-beta+signaling.">Regulation of transforming growth factor-beta signaling.</a> Molecular cell biology research communications : MCBRC. 4, 321-330 (2001).</li><li>Massagu&#233;, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TGF&#946;+in+Cancer.">TGF&#946; in Cancer.</a> Cell. 134, 215-230 (2008).</li><li>Luwor, R. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single+live+cell+TGF-beta+signaling+imaging:+breast+cancer+cell+motility+and+migration+is+driven+by+sub-populations+of+cells+with+dynamic+TGF-beta-Smad3+activity.">Single live cell TGF-beta signaling imaging: breast cancer cell motility and migration is driven by sub-populations of cells with dynamic TGF-beta-Smad3 activity.</a> Molecular cancer. 14, 50 (2015).</li><li>Clarke, D. C., Liu, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decoding+the+quantitative+nature+of+TGF-beta/Smad+signaling.">Decoding the quantitative nature of TGF-beta/Smad signaling.</a> Trends in Cell Biol.ogy. 18, 430-442 (2008).</li><li>Zhao, R., Li, N., Xu, J., Li, W., Fang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+single-molecule+study+of+TGF-beta/Smad+signaling.">Quantitative single-molecule study of TGF-beta/Smad signaling.</a> Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica (Shanghai). 50, 51-59 (2017).</li><li>Luwor, R. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+reagents+for+improved+in+vitro+and+in+vivo+examination+of+TGF-beta+signalling.">New reagents for improved in vitro and in vivo examination of TGF-beta signalling.</a> Growth factors. 29, 211-218 (2011).</li><li>Dennler, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+binding+of+Smad3+and+Smad4+to+critical+TGF+beta-inducible+elements+in+the+promoter+of+human+plasminogen+activator+inhibitor-type+1+gene.">Direct binding of Smad3 and Smad4 to critical TGF beta-inducible elements in the promoter of human plasminogen activator inhibitor-type 1 gene.</a> EMBO J. 17, 3091-3100 (1998).</li><li>Luwor, R. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+Stat3+and+Smad7+to+restore+TGF-beta+cytostatic+regulation+of+tumor+cells+in+vitro+and+in+vivo.">Targeting Stat3 and Smad7 to restore TGF-beta cytostatic regulation of tumor cells in vitro and in vivo.</a> Oncogene. 32, 2433-2441 (2013).</li><li>Reed, L. J., Muench, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Simple+Method+of+Estimating+Fifty+Per+Cent+Endpoints.">A Simple Method of Estimating Fifty Per Cent Endpoints.</a> American Journal of Epidemiology. 27, 493-497 (1938).</li><li>Schneider, C. A., Rasband, W. S., Eliceiri, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NIH+Image+to+ImageJ:+25+years+of+image+analysis.">NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis.</a> Nature methods. 9, 671-675 (2012).</li><li>Dennler, S., Prunier, C., Ferrand, N., Gauthier, J. M., Atfi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=c-Jun+inhibits+transforming+growth+factor+beta-mediated+transcription+by+repressing+Smad3+transcriptional+activity.">c-Jun inhibits transforming growth factor beta-mediated transcription by repressing Smad3 transcriptional activity.</a> The Journal of biological chemistry. 275, 28858-28865 (2000).</li><li>Fink, S. P., Mikkola, D., Willson, J. K., Markowitz, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TGF-beta-induced+nuclear+localization+of+Smad2+and+Smad3+in+Smad4+null+cancer+cell+lines.">TGF-beta-induced nuclear localization of Smad2 and Smad3 in Smad4 null cancer cell lines.</a> Oncogene. 22, 1317-1323 (2003).</li><li>Zinn, K. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noninvasive+bioluminescence+imaging+in+small+animals.">Noninvasive bioluminescence imaging in small animals.</a> ILAR J. 49, 103-115 (2008).</li><li>Kim, T. K., Eberwine, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mammalian+cell+transfection:+the+present+and+the+future.">Mammalian cell transfection: the present and the future.</a> Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 397, 3173-3178 (2010).</li><li>Russell, W. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Update+on+adenovirus+and+its+vectors.">Update on adenovirus and its vectors.</a> Journal of General Virology. 81, 2573-2604 (2000).</li><li>Lee, C. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adenovirus-Mediated+Gene+Delivery:+Potential+Applications+for+Gene+and+Cell-Based+Therapies+in+the+New+Era+of+Personalized+Medicine.">Adenovirus-Mediated Gene Delivery: Potential Applications for Gene and Cell-Based Therapies in the New Era of Personalized Medicine.</a> Genes &amp; Diseases. 4, 43-63 (2017).</li><li>Wang, I. I., Huang, I. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adenovirus+technology+for+gene+manipulation+and+functional+studies.">Adenovirus technology for gene manipulation and functional studies.</a> Drug Discovery Today. 5, 10-16 (2000).</li><li>Kochanek, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+adenoviral+vector:+Replacement+of+all+viral+coding+sequences+with+28+kb+of+DNA+independently+expressing+both+full-length+dystrophin+and+beta-galactosidase.">A new adenoviral vector: Replacement of all viral coding sequences with 28 kb of DNA independently expressing both full-length dystrophin and beta-galactosidase.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93, 5731-5736 (1996).</li><li>Wang, Q., Finer, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Second-generation+adenovirus+vectors.">Second-generation adenovirus vectors.</a> Nature Medicine. 2, 714-716 (1996).</li><li>Durham, H. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toxicity+of+replication-defective+adenoviral+recombinants+in+dissociated+cultures+of+nervous+tissue.">Toxicity of replication-defective adenoviral recombinants in dissociated cultures of nervous tissue.</a> Experimental Neurology. 140, 14-20 (1996).</li><li>MacKenzie, K. L., Hackett, N. R., Crystal, R. G., Moore, M. 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Vi har udviklet en teknik til at give mulighed for real-time imaging af TGF-β/Smad3 signalering i enkelt levende celler. Brug af denne nye metode, har vi tidligere konstateret en delpopulation af celler med dynamisk TGF-β/Smad3 transcriptional aktivitet, der var forbundet med forøget invasion og migration8. Denne metode forbedrer på traditionelle assays til TGF-β signalering, såsom western blotting af Smad3 fosforylering og TGF-β målrettet genekspression, ved at indfange heterogeniteten af...

Omdanne vækst faktor β (TGF-β) er en afgørende cytokin impliceret i den menneskelige udvikling, der signalerer gennem en kompleks bestående af type II heterodimerisk og type I-receptorer1. Bindende skrive II receptor resulterer i rekruttering og fosforylering af typen receptor, hvilket igen phosphorylates downstream Smad2/3 proteiner2,3. Disse aktiveret Smad2/3 proteiner binder sig til Smad4, danner et kompleks, der translocates ind i kernen og regulerer gen transskription4. Homeostatiske betingelser TGF-β/Smad er signalering stramt reguleret; men i mange sygdomme, den signalvejen er dereguleret og ofte overexpressed fører til progression af sygdommen5,6,7. Nylige undersøgelser har vist at cellulære reaktion på TGF-β er heterogene og delpopulationer af TGF-β/Smad aktive celler er ansvarlige for biologiske funktion i en tidsafhængig måde8,9. Fælles cellulære analyse af TGF-β/Smad signalering indebærer anvendelse af fast slutpunkt assays, der giver kun et øjebliksbillede af cellulære aktivitet og ofte kvantificere den gennemsnitlige TGF-β/Smad effekt10. Disse metoder, men kan ikke præcist repræsenterer den molekylære opførsel af TGF-β/Smad signalering i de fysiologiske tilstand i løbet af sygdomsprogression. Image-baseret analyse af levende celler fange dynamikken i cellulære og biologiske processer med begge en rumlig og tidsmæssig forståelse.
Vores mål var at udvikle en følsom høj overførselshastighed metode for levende celle billeddannelse af TGF-β/Smad signalering adenovirus-baserede reagenser. Her, inficeret vi menneskers breast cancer cellelinie MDA-MB-231 med en adenovirus udtryk for Smad3 CAGA motiv bindende sekvens og en luciferase (Luc) eller Td-tomat (Td-Tom) reporter gen. Adenoviral reporter systemer giver en hurtig og billig metode til plasmid introduktion, der kan resultere i en 100% infektion sats i kræft cellelinjer. Adenoviral reporter systemer har også været anvendt med succes til cellelinjer, der er svært at transfect med konventionelle plasmid11. I denne protokol vil vi beskrive en reproducerbar og noninvasive proces for at opnå levende celle billeddannelse af TGFβ/Smad signalvejen både i vivo og in vitro.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>1881024</td>
			<td>Warm in 37 &#176;C waterbath before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Foetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Scientifix Life</td>
			<td>FBS500-S</td>
			<td>Heat inactivated before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant Human TGF-&#946;1</td>
			<td>PEPROTECH</td>
			<td>100-21</td>
			<td>Aliquot in DDW to make final concentration at 10 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hoechst-33258</td>
			<td>Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td>5117</td>
			<td>Dilute in to PBS to make final concentration at 1 &#956;L/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luciferase Reporter Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>197897</td>
			<td>Dilute 5x in PBS before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luminometer</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>9100-002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phase contrast fluorescence microscopy</td>
			<td>OLYMPUS</td>
			<td>IX50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810 R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VivoGl Luciferin</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>P1041</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IVIS Lumina III In Vivo Imaging System</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>CLS136334</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.5% Trypsin-EDTA (10x)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>15400-054</td>
			<td>Diltue to 0.05% (1x) in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Culture Lysis 5x Reagent</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>E153A</td>
			<td>Dilute to 1x in DDW</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Formalin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F5554-4L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK 293A</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>R70507</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MDA-MB-231</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRM-HTB-26</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PRKDC-SCID</td>
			<td>Animal Resources Centre</td>
			<td>SCIDF6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matrigel</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>354234</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Zoetis</td>
			<td>26675-46-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Chem-supply</td>
			<td>EA043-10L-P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refresh Night Time</td>
			<td>Allergan</td>
			<td>1750D</td>
			<td>Lubricating Eye Ointment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solution</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Composition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>NaH2PO4.2H2O (4 mM); NaHPO4 (16 mM); NaCl (0.12M)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS-DMEM&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5% heat inactivated FBS; 10 &#956;g/mL penicillin; 100 &#956;g/mL streptomycin</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

live cell imaging of the tgf-	&beta;/smad3 signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo using an adenovirus reporter system

Omdanne vækst faktor β (TGF-β) signalering regulerer mange vigtige funktioner, der kræves for cellulære homøostase og er almindeligt forekommende overexpressed i mange sygdomme, herunder kræft. TGF-β er stærkt impliceret i metastase i sent stadium kræft progression, aktivere et undersæt af vandrende og invasive tumorceller. Nuværende metoder til signalering pathway analyse fokuserer på slutpunktet modeller, som ofte forsøger at måle signaling post-hoc af hændelsen biologiske og afspejler ikke den progressive karakter af sygdommen. Her viser vi en roman adenovirus reporter system bestemt til TGF-β/Smad3 signalvejen, der kan registrere transcriptional aktivering i levende celler. Udnytte en Ad-CAGA12-Td-Tom reporter, kan vi opnå en 100% infektion sats af MDA-MB-231 celler inden for 24 timer in vitro. Brug af en fluorescerende reporter giver mulighed for billeddannelse af levende enkelt celler i realtid med direkte identifikation af transcriptionally aktive celler. Stimulation af inficerede celler med TGF-β viser kun et undersæt af celler, der transcriptionally aktiv og involveret i specifikke biologiske funktioner. Denne tilgang giver mulighed for høj specificitet og sensitivitet på en enkelt celle plan at øge forståelse af biologiske funktioner relateret til TGF-β signalering i vitro. Smad3 transcriptional aktivitet kan også blive rapporteret i vivo i realtid gennem anvendelse af en Ad-CAGA12- Luc reporter. Ad-CAGA12- Luc kan måles på samme måde som traditionelle stabilt transfekteret luciferase cellelinjer. Smad3 transcriptional aktivitet af celler implanteret i vivo kan analyseres via konventionelle IVIS imaging og overvåges live under tumor progression, giver enestående indsigt i dynamikken i TGF-β signalvejen. Vores protokol beskriver en fordelagtig reporter leveringssystem giver mulighed for hurtig høj overførselshastighed billeddannelse af levende celle signalering veje både in vitro- og in vivo. Denne metode kan udvides til en række billede baseret assays og gaver som en følsom og reproducerbare tilgang til grundlæggende biologi og terapeutisk udvikling.

Live enkelt celle imaging in vitro-
Du kan præcist vurdere aktivering af TGF-β/Smad signalering i enkelte celler ved hjælp af adenovirus baseret reagenser, er det vigtigt at først fastslå den optimale multiplicitet infektion (MOI) for hver cellelinje. Den optimale MOI bestemmes, når 100% af cellerne er positive for adenoviral infektion uden nuværende cytopatisk eller cytotoksiske virkninger. For at finde ud af, brug...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live Cell Imaging of the TGF-	ÃŽÂ²/Smad3 Signaling Pathway In Vitro and In Vivo Using an Adenovirus Reporter System at JoVE.com

Live Cell Imaging of the TGF-	ÃƒÆ’Ã…Â½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚Â²/Smad3 Signaling Pathway In Vitro and In Vivo Using an Adenovirus Reporter System

Live celle billeddannelse af den TGF-β/Smad3 Signaling Pathway In Vitro og In Vivo ved hjælp af en Adenovirus Reporter System

Vi præsenterer her, en protokol for levende celle billeddannelse af TGF-β/Smad3 signaling aktivitet ved hjælp af en adenovirus reporter system. Dette system registrerer transcriptional aktiviteten i realtid og kan anvendes til både enkelt celler in vitro- og i levende dyrmodeller.

Transforming Growth Factor &#946; (TGF-&#946;) signaling regulates many important functions required for cellular homeostasis and is commonly found ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

Live Cell Imaging of the TGF-	&beta;/Smad3 Signaling Pathway In Vitro and In Vivo Using an Adenovirus Reporter System

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

In Vivo EPR Assessment of pH, pO2, Redox Status, and Concentrations of Phosphate and Glutathione in the Tumor Microenvironment

In Vivo EPR vurdering af pH, pO2, Redox Status, og koncentrationen af fosfat og glutathion i Tumor mikromiljø

This protocol demonstrates the capability of low-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based techniques in combination with functional paramagnetic ...

Radionuclide-fluorescence Reporter Gene Imaging to Track Tumor Progression in Rodent Tumor Models

Radionukleid-fluorescens Reporter gen Imaging for at spore Tumor Progression i gnavere Tumor modeller

Metastasis is responsible for most cancer deaths. Despite extensive research, the mechanistic understanding of the complex processes governing metastasis ...

Long-term Live-cell Imaging to Assess Cell Fate in Response to Paclitaxel

Langsigtet Live-celle Imaging for at vurdere celle skæbne i svar til Paclitaxel

Live-cell imaging is a powerful technique that can be used to directly visualize biological phenomena in single cells over extended periods of time. Over ...

Live-Cell Imaging Assays to Study Glioblastoma Brain Tumor Stem Cell Migration and Invasion

Live-celle Imaging Assays til undersøgelse glioblastom hjerne Tumor stamcelle Migration og Invasion

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor that is poorly controlled with the currently available treatment options. Key features of GBMs include ...

Monitoring Hippo Signaling Pathway Activity Using a Luciferase-based Large Tumor Suppressor (LATS) Biosensor

Monitoring Hippo Signaling Pathway Activity Using a Luciferase-based Large Tumor Suppressor LATS Biosensor

Overvågning Hippo signalering Pathway aktivitet ved hjælp af en Luciferase-baserede store Tumor Suppressor (LATS) Biosensor

The Hippo signaling pathway is a conserved regulator of organ size and has important roles in the development and cancer biology. Due to technical ...

A Simple Migration/Invasion Workflow Using an Automated Live-cell Imager

En simpel Migration/Invasion arbejdsgang ved hjælp af en automatiseret Live-celle Imager

Cancer cell mobility is crucial for the initiation of metastasis. Therefore, investigation of the cell movement and invasive capacity is of great ...

Characterize Disease-related Mutants of RAF Family Kinases by Using a Set of Practical and Feasible Methods

Karakterisere sygdomsrelaterede mutanter af RAF-familie kinaser ved hjælp af et sæt praktiske og gennemførlige metoder

The rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (RAF) family kinases play a central role in cell biology and their dysfunction leads to cancers and developmental ...

In Vitro Assay to Study Tumor-macrophage Interaction

In vitro-analyse for at studere tumor-makrofag interaktion

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a ...

In Vitro Establishment of a Genetically Engineered Murine Head and Neck Cancer Cell Line using an Adeno-Associated Virus-Cas9 System

In vitro etablering af en genetisk manipuleret murine hoved og hals Cancer cellelinje ved hjælp af en adeno-associeret virus-Cas9 system

The use of primary normal epithelial cells makes it possible to reproducibly induce genomic alterations required for cellular transformation by ...

In Vitro Evaluation of Oncogenic Transformation in Human Mammary Epithelial Cells

In Vitro evaluering af onkogene transformation i humane mammary epitelceller

Tumorigenesis is a multi-step process in which cells acquire capabilities&#160;that allow their growth, survival, and dissemination under hostile ...