Name: management of respiratory motion artefacts in 18f-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography using an amplitude-based optimal respiratory gating algorithm
Uploaded: 2020-07-23T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Management of Respiratory Motion Artefacts in 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography using an Amplitude-Based Optimal Respiratory Gating Algorith

The authors would like to thank Richard Raghoo for providing the PET images shown in Figure 1.

All procedures performed involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the internal review board (IRB) of the Radboud university medical center and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The ORG algorithm is a vendor specific product and is available on the Siemens Biograph mCT PET/CT scanner family and newer PET/CT models.
1. Patient preparation
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	<li>Patient anamnesis
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		<li>Check the patient&#82...

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In the nuclear medicine community, the deteriorating effects of respiratory motion artefacts in PET imaging have been well-recognized for a long time. It has been shown in many studies that the blurring effect of respiratory motion artefacts can significantly influence image quantification and lesion detectability. Although several respiratory gating methods have been developed, respiratory gating is currently not widely being used in clinical practice. This is particularly due to a resulting variable image quality, unac...

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) in combination with X-ray computed tomography (CT) is a widely accepted imaging tool in clinical practice for accurate diagnosis and clinical staging of a variety of diseases1. The advantage of PET imaging is the ability to visualize and quantify a myriad of biological processes in vivo with high sensitivity and accuracy2. This is achieved through intravenously administering a radioactively labelled compound, also known as a radiotracer, to the patient. Depending on the radiotracer being used, tissue characteristics such as glucose metabolism, cellular proliferation, degree of hypoxia, amino acid transport, and expression of proteins and receptors, can be visualized and quantified2.
Although several radiotracers have been developed, validated, and used in clinical practice, the radioactive glucose analogue 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) is the most widely used radiotracer in clinical practice. Given that FDG predominantly accumulates in cells with an elevated glycolytic rate (i.e., cells with elevated glucose uptake and conversion to pyruvate for energy production), it is possible to discriminate tissues with different metabolic states. Similar to glucose, the first step of FDG uptake is transport from the extra-cellular space over the plasma membrane to the intra-cellular space, which is facilitated by glucose transporters (GLUT)3. Once the FDG is in the intra-cellular space, phosphorylation by hexokinases will result in the generation of FDG-6-phosphate. However, in contrast to glucose-6-phosphate, FDG-6-phosphate cannot enter the Krebs cycle for further aerobic dissimilation due to the absence of a hydroxyl (OH) group at the second (2&#8217;) carbon position. Given that the reverse reaction, the dephosphorylation of FDG-6-phosphate back to FDG, hardly occurs in most tissues, the FDG-6-phosphate is trapped intracellularly3. Therefore, the degree of FDG uptake is dependent on the expression of the GLUT (in particular GLUT1 and GLUT3) on the plasma membrane, and the intracellular enzymatic activity of hexokinases. The concept of this continuous uptake and trapping of FDG is referred to as metabolic trapping. The fact that FDG preferentially accumulates in tissues with an elevated metabolic activity is shown in Figure 1a, demonstrating the physiological distribution of FDG in a patient. This FDG-PET image shows higher uptake in heart, brain, and liver tissues, which are known to be metabolically active organs under normal conditions.
The high sensitivity for detecting differences in the metabolic state of tissues makes FDG an excellent radiotracer for discriminating normal from diseased tissues, given that an altered metabolism is an important hallmark for many diseases. This is readily depicted in Figure 1b, showing an FDG-PET image of a patient with stage IV non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). There is increased uptake in the primary tumor as well as in metastatic lesions. In addition to visualization, quantification of radiotracer uptake plays an important role in clinical management of patients. Quantitative indices derived from PET images reflecting the degree of radiotracer uptake, such as the standardized uptake value (SUV), metabolic volumes, and total lesion glycolysis (TLG), can be used to provide important prognostic information and measure treatment response for different patient groups4,5,6. In this regard, FDG-PET imaging is increasingly being used to personalize radiotherapy and systemic treatment in oncology patients7. Furthermore, the use of FDG-PET for monitoring acute treatment induced toxicity, such as radiation induced esophagitis8, pneumonitis9 and systemic inflammatory responses10, has been described and provides important information for making image-guided treatment decisions.
Given the important role of PET for clinical management of patients, image quality and quantitative accuracy is important for appropriately guiding treatment decisions based on PET images. However, there are numerous technical factors that can compromise quantitative accuracy of PET images11. An important factor that can significantly influence image quantification in PET is related to the longer acquisition times of PET compared to other radiological imaging modalities, typically several minutes per bed position. As a consequence, patients are usually instructed to breath freely during PET imaging. The result is that PET images suffer from respiratory induced motion, which can lead to significant blurring of organs located within the thorax and upper abdomen. This respiratory-induced motion blurring can significantly impair adequate visualization and quantitative accuracy of radiotracer uptake, which can affect clinical management of patients when using PET images for diagnosis and staging, target volume definition for radiation treatment planning applications, and monitoring of therapy response12.
Several respiratory gating methods have been developed in an attempt to correct PET images for respiratory motion artefacts13. These methods can be categorized into prospective, retrospective, and data-driven gating strategies. Prospective and retrospective respiratory gating techniques typically rely on the acquisition of a respiratory surrogate signal during PET imaging14. These respiratory surrogate signals are used to track and monitor the patient&#8217;s respiratory cycle. Examples of respiratory tracking devices are detection of chest wall excursion using pressure sensors12 or optical tracking systems (e.g., video cameras)15, thermocouples to measure the temperature of breathed air16, and spirometers to measure airflow and thereby indirectly estimating volume changes in the patient&#8217;s lungs17.
Respiratory gating is then typically accomplished by continuously and simultaneously recording a surrogate signal (designated S(t)), with the PET data during image acquisition. Using the surrogate signal acquired, PET data corresponding to a particular respiratory phase or amplitude range (amplitude-based gating) can be selected12,13,18. Phase-based gating is performed by dividing each respiratory cycle into a fixed number of gates, as depicted in Figure 2a. Respiratory gating is then performed by selecting data acquired at a particular phase during the patient&#8217;s respiratory cycle to be used for image reconstruction. Similarly, amplitude-based gating relies on defining an amplitude range of the respiratory signal, as shown in Figure 2b. When the value of the respiratory signal falls within the set amplitude range, the corresponding PET listmode data will be used for image reconstruction. For retrospective gating approaches, all data is collected and re-binning of the PET data is performed after image acquisition. Although prospective respiratory gating methods use the same concepts as retrospective gating approaches for re-binning of PET data, these methods rely on collecting data prospectively during image acquisition. When a sufficient amount of PET data is collected, image acquisition will be finalized. The difficulty of such prospective and retrospective gating approaches is maintaining acceptable image quality without significantly prolonging image acquisition times when irregular breathing occurs13. In this regard, phase-based respiratory gating methods are particularly sensitive to irregular breathing patterns13,19, where significant amounts of PET data can be discarded due to rejection of inappropriate triggers, resulting in considerable reduction of image quality or unacceptable lengthening of image acquisition time. Additionally, when inappropriate triggers are accepted, the performance of the respiratory gating algorithm and thereby the effectiveness of motion rejection from the PET images can be reduced due to the fact that respiratory gates are defined at different phases of the respiratory cycle, as depicted in Figure 2a. Indeed, it has been reported that amplitude-based respiratory gating is more stable than phase-based approaches in case of irregularities in the respiratory signal13. Though amplitude-based respiratory gating algorithms are more robust in the presence of irregular breathing frequencies, these algorithms are more sensitive to baseline drifting of the respiratory signal. Drifting of the baseline signal can occur due to numerous reasons when the patient&#8217;s muscle tension (i.e., transition of a patient into a more relaxed state during image acquisition) or breathing pattern changes. In order to prevent such baseline drifting of the signal, care should be taken to securely attach tracking sensors to the patient and perform regular monitoring of the respiratory signal.
Although these problems are known, traditional respiratory gating algorithms only allow limited control over image quality and usually require significant lengthening of image acquisition time or increased amounts of radiotracer to be administered to the patient. These factors resulted in limited adoption of such protocols in clinical routine. In order to circumvent these problems related to the variable quality of the respiratory gated images , a specific type of amplitude-based gating algorithm, also known as optimal respiratory gating (ORG), has been proposed18. Respiratory gating with ORG permits the user to specify image quality of the respiratory gated images by providing a duty cycle as input to the algorithm. The duty cycle is defined as a percentage of the acquired PET list-mode data that is used for image reconstruction. In contrast to many other respiratory gating algorithms, this concept permits the user to directly determine image quality of the reconstructed PET images. Based on the duty cycle specified, an optimal amplitude range is calculated, which takes the specific characteristics of the entire respiratory surrogate signal into account18. The optimal amplitude range for a specific duty cycle will be calculated by starting with a selection of different values for the lower amplitude limit, designated (L), of the respiratory signal. For each selected lower limit, the upper amplitude limit, designated (U), is adjusted in such a way that the sum of the selected PET data, defined as data acquired when the respiratory signal falls within the amplitude range (L&#60;S(t)&#60;U), is equal to the specified duty cycle. For example, for a duty cycle of 50% and six minutes of acquired PET listmode data, the amplitude range is adapted to include three minutes (50%) of PET data. The optimal amplitude range (W) is defined as the smallest amplitude range used for respiratory gating that still contains the required amount of PET data (i.e., ArgMax([U-L])), as depicted in Figure 2c12. Thus, by specifying the duty cycle, the user makes a trade-off between the amount of noise and the degree of residual motion residing in the ORG PET images. Lowering the duty cycle will increase the amount of noise, though this will also reduce the amount of residual motion in the PET images (and vice versa). Although the concepts and effects of ORG have been described in previous reports, the purpose of this manuscript is to provide clinicians with details on the specific protocols when using ORG in clinical practice. Therefore, the use of ORG in a clinical imaging protocol is described. Several practical aspects, including patient preparation, image acquisition and reconstruction protocols will be provided. Furthermore, the manuscript will cover the user interface of the ORG software and specific choices that can be made when performing respiratory gating during PET imaging. Lastly, the effect of ORG on lesion detectability and image quantification, as shown in previous studies, are discussed.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Sensor Port, sensor, black box, wave deck, elastic band, load cell sensor (complete set)</td>
			<td>anzai medical co.</td>
			<td>respiratory gating system AZ-733V</td>
			<td>http://www.anzai-med.co.jp/en/product/item/az733v</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

management of respiratory motion artefacts in 18f-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography using an amplitude-based optimal respiratory gating algorithm

Positron emission tomography (PET) combined with X-ray computed tomography (CT) is an important molecular imaging platform that is required for accurate diagnosis and clinical staging of a variety of diseases. The advantage of PET imaging is the ability to visualize and quantify a myriad of biological processes in vivo with high sensitivity and accuracy. However, there are multiple factors that determine image quality and quantitative accuracy of PET images. One of the foremost factors influencing image quality in PET imaging of the thorax and upper abdomen is respiratory motion, resulting in respiration-induced motion blurring of anatomical structures. Correction of these artefacts is required for providing optimal image quality and quantitative accuracy of PET images.
Several respiratory gating techniques have been developed, typically relying on acquisition of a respiratory signal simultaneously with PET data. Based on the respiratory signal acquired, PET data is selected for reconstruction of a motion-free image. Although these methods have been shown to effectively remove respiratory motion artefacts from PET images, the performance is dependent on the quality of the respiratory signal being acquired. In this study, the use of an amplitude-based optimal respiratory gating (ORG) algorithm is discussed. In contrast to many other respiratory gating algorithms, ORG permits the user to have control over image quality versus the amount of rejected motion in the reconstructed PET images. This is achieved by calculating an optimal amplitude range based on the acquired surrogate signal and a user-specified duty cycle (the percentage of PET data used for image reconstruction). The optimal amplitude range is defined as the smallest amplitude range still containing the amount of PET data required for image reconstruction. It was shown that ORG results in effective removal of respiration-induced image blurring in PET imaging of the thorax and upper abdomen, resulting in improved image quality and quantitative accuracy.

The use of ORG in PET results in an overall reduction of respiratory-induced blurring of the images. For example, in a clinical evaluation of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), ORG resulted in detection of more pulmonary lesions and hilar/mediastinal lymph nodes20. This is readily demonstrated in Figure 8 and Figure 9, showing non-gated and ORG PET images of patients with NSCLC.
In particular, OR...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Management of Respiratory Motion Artefacts in 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography using an Amplitude-Based Optimal Respiratory Gating Algorith

Management of Respiratory Motion Artefacts in 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography using an Amplitude-Based Optimal Respiratory Gating Algorithm

Amplitude-based optimal respiratory gating (ORG) effectively removes respiratory-induced motion blurring from clinical 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) images. Correction of FDG-PET images for these respiratory motion artefacts improves image quality, diagnostic and quantitative accuracy. Removal of respiratory motion artefacts is important for adequate clinical management of patients using PET.

Management of Respiratory Motion Artefacts in 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography using an Amplitude-Based Optimal Respiratory Gating Algorithm

Positron emission tomography (PET) combined with X-ray computed tomography (CT) is an important molecular imaging platform that is required for accurate ...

The deteriorating effects of respiratory motion artifacts in PET/CT imaging have long been well-recognized. Optimal respiratory gating is a method used to correct PET/CT images for these motion artifacts. Maintaining a sufficient image quality is problematic for most respiratory gating algorithms.The optimal respiratory gating algorithm allows the user to maintain and define a sufficient image quality. Respiratory motion artifacts can significantly influence image quality and quantitative accuracy. Therefore, removal of these artifacts from PET images is important to improve diagnostic accuracy and the ability to monitor treatment responses.Demonstrating the procedure will be Jurrian, a senior technologist at the Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine. Prior to administration of the radiotracer. It is important to measure the patient's blood glucose.After explaining the preparation and imaging procedures to the patient, insert a peripheral venous cannula, into one of the antecubital veins of the patient, and attach a three-way stopcock system with a lure lock to a 20-milliliter syringe of saline. De-aerate the stopcock with saline and attach the stopcock to the venous cannula. Check the patency of the cannula with 10 milliliters of saline, and attach the syringe with the radiotracer to the three-way stopcock.Then turn the valves of the three-way stopcock such that the direction of the fluid will flow from the syringe containing the radiotracer to the peripheral venous cannula. The syringe has been placed in a special tungsten shielded container. To administer the radiotracer, slowly depress the syringe plunger of the container.When all of the tracer has been delivered. Turn the valves of the stopcock such that the syringe containing the saline is connected to the radiotracer syringe, and flush the syringe to capture any residual radiotracer within the syringe in the saline. Then turn the valves of the stopcock, and deliver the saline flush containing residual radiotracer to the patient.After the last wash of radiotracer had been administered, remove the radiotracer syringe. And deliver 0.5 milligrams per kilogram of furosemide through the venous cannula. After the furosemide has been delivered, let the patient rest in a comfortable position for 50 minutes before asking the patient to void their bladder.At 55 minutes, escort the patient to the scanner, and have the patient lie in the supine position with the arms up on the scanner bed. Use appropriate arm support to make the patient as comfortable as possible. And observe the patient's breathing pattern.Secure the respiratory belt around the patient's thorax or upper abdomen with the sensor placed such that the abdominal wall excursion can be identified after visual inspection. Then use the hook and loop closing system to secure the belt around the patient, and check the scanner display to confirm that the respiratory signal remains within the bounds of the minimum and maximum range. At 60 minutes after registering the patient, select the whole body protocol on the scanner and click the optimal gated acquisition protocol.Move the scanner table to the correct position for acquisition of the topogram. To initiate acquisition of the topogram, press the scanner start key on the scanner control box and click the left mouse button on the topogram to set the scan range. Then acquire a low-dose CT scan of the patient.Next, set the PET bed position to be corrected for respiratory motion, and set the image recording time for the bed positions. When the acquisition parameters have been entered, press and hold the move key until the scanner bed has been moved back to the starting position, and press start again to initiate the PET scan. During the acquisition, regularly check the patient and the quality of the respiratory signal.At the end of the scan, confirm that the respiratory signal has been acquired, and initiate the scan reconstruction. The use of optimal gating in PET images results in an overall reduction of respiratory-induced blurring of the images. For example, in a clinical evaluation of patients with non-small cell lung cancer, optimal gating resulted in the detection of more pulmonary lesions, and hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes.These differences can have an important impact on patient management, particularly in non-small cell lung cancer patients with early disease stages. An important advantage of the optimal respiratory gating algorithm is that image quality can be determined by the user. In this figure, two different optimally gated PET and non-gated PET images with different statistical quality can be observed.While the statistical quality of the optimally gated PET image reconstructed with a duty cycle of 35%and the non gated equivalent image is kept constant. The trade-off between image noise and the amount of motion rejection from the pet images is determined by the duty cycle. Although image quality is maintained when using the optimal respiratory gating algorithm, appropriate positioning of the belt prior to scanning is important for acquiring a high quality respiratory signal.

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