Name: generation of human neurons and oligodendrocytes from pluripotent stem cells for modeling neuron-oligodendrocyte interactions
Uploaded: 2020-11-09T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Human Neurons and Oligodendrocytes from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Modeling Neuron-Oligodendrocyte Interactions at JoVE.com

Este trabalho foi apoiado pelas subvenções dos Institutos Nacionais de Saúde (R00 AG054616 para Y.A.H. e T32 GM136566 para K.C.), Stanford University School of Medicine e uma Siebel Fellowship (concedida a S.C.). Y.A.H. é professor translacional da GFL do Centro de Neurociência Translacional do Brown Institute for Translational Sciences.

1. Indução de neurônios humanos a partir de células-tronco pluripotentes humanas
<ol><li>Preparação de Lentivirus (~5 dias, protocolo detalhado conforme descrito anteriormente16)<ol><li>Placa ~1 milhão de células HEK293T cada frasco T75, para tê-las ~40% confluentes ao realizar a transfecção. Transfecte-os com plasmídeos que expressam Ngn2 induzível por tetraciclina e gene resistente à puromicina (PuroR; sob o mesmo controle promotor de TetO), rtTA e os três plasmídeos auxiliares...

<ol>
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H., Park, C. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+reprogramming+methods+for+generation+of+induced-oligodendrocyte+precursor+cells.">Comparison of reprogramming methods for generation of induced-oligodendrocyte precursor cells.</a> Biomolecules &amp; Therapeutics (Seoul). 25 (4), 362-366 (2017).</li><li>Ehrlich, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+and+efficient+generation+of+oligodendrocytes+from+human+induced+pluripotent+stem+cells+using+transcription+factors.">Rapid and efficient generation of oligodendrocytes from human induced pluripotent stem cells using transcription factors.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (11), 2243-2252 (2017).</li><li>Rodrigues, G. M. 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Além do suporte físico e metabólico para estabilizar as estruturas das sinapses e facilitar a condução do sinal salino por mielinização, as células da linhagem de oligodendrócitos podem moldar o padrão de atividade neuronal por meio de conversas cruzadas rápidas e dinâmicas com neurônios 5,6,7. Enquanto na patologia da DA as respostas oligodendrogliais foram inicialmente consideradas meramente secundárias à inflam...

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/61778/generation-human-neurons-oligodendrocytes-from-pluripotent-stem-cells">Generation of Human Neurons and Oligodendrocytes from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Modeling Neuron-Oligodendrocyte Interactions</a>.&#160;The Representative Results section has been updated.
Figure 3 was updated from:
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61778/61778fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Co-culture of iNs and iOPCs.&#160;(A) Representative bright field image of co-cultured iNs and iOPCs at Day 7, showing a proper density for further maturation. (B) Representative immunofluorescence image of iNs and iOPCs co-cultured for 28 days. Axonal marker neurofilament NF is shown in green and oligodendrocytic marker MBP in red. Right, a segment of iN axon ensheathed by iOL process (MBP+). (C) Synapse formation assayed in 4-week-old co-cultures. Cells were stained for Synapsin 1 (Syn1, green) and MAP2 (red), and synaptic puncta were quantified by confocal analysis of density along the dendritic segments as described17,18. (D) In our co-cultures of iNs and iOPCs (7 days of co-culturing), the expression of astrocyte markers, ALDHL1 and GFAP, is minimal (top), and the expression of microglia markers, TMEM119, TREM2, and CD33, is not detected (N.D.) by qPCR. The contamination from these two glial cell types is thus excluded. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61778/61778fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
to:
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/61778/61778fig3v2.png" /> 
Figure 3: Co-culture of iNs and iOPCs.&#160;(A) Representative bright field image of co-cultured iNs and iOPCs at Day 7, showing a proper density for further maturation. (B) Representative immunofluorescence image of iNs and iOPCs co-cultured for 28 days. Axonal marker neurofilament NF is shown in green and oligodendrocytic marker MBP in red. Right, a segment of iN axon ensheathed by iOL process (MBP+). (C) Synapse formation assayed in 4-week-old co-cultures. Cells were stained for Synapsin 1 (Syn1, green) and MAP2 (red), and synaptic puncta were quantified by confocal analysis of density along the dendritic segments as described17,18. (D) In our co-cultures of iNs and iOPCs (7 days of co-culturing), the expression of astrocyte markers, ALDHL1 and GFAP, is minimal (top), and the expression of microglia markers, TMEM119, TREM2, and CD33, is not detected (N.D.) by qPCR. The contamination from these two glial cell types is thus excluded.&#160;(E) Coculturing iOPC with iN leads to the formation of neuron-OPC synapses. The fluorescence-tagged post-synaptic marker PSD95-mCherry is expressed only in OPCs, and display a diffuse pattern in single cultures (left) but aggregate to form puncta in cocultures (right, indicated by arrows; Tuj1, neuronal marker). (F) The expression of well-characterized oligodendroglial genes that can sense and respond to neuronal activities in the pure cultures of iOPCs at Day 14.&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/61778/61778fig3v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The fourth&#160;paragraph was updated from:
Co-culturing of iNs and iOPCs 
This protocol is optimized specifically for co-culturing iNs and iOPCs and allow our real-time monitoring of the inter-cellular communications between these two cell types along the course of neural development. The ideal plating densities for both cell types need to be decided with a series of cell number titration to achieve proper differentiation (Figure 3A). After 4 weeks in co-cultures, the iOPCs are expected to be adequately differentiated into OLs that are positive for specific markers such as MBP and extend processes to ensheath axons (Figure 3B). The co-culture system can robustly boost up the number of synapses, indicating that the iOPCs provide a neuronal support through physical contacts or release of trophic factors (Figure 3C). We can maintain the co-cultures in acceptable health condition for up to 6 weeks and observe that the synapse number and other neuronal attributes plateau around the fifth week. Of note, astrocytes and microglia are not present in our preparations and their absence can be documented by checking the expression of specific markers (Figure 3D).
to:
Co-culturing of iNs and iOPCs 
This protocol is optimized specifically for co-culturing iNs and iOPCs and allow our real-time monitoring of the inter-cellular communications between these two cell types along the course of neural development. The ideal plating densities for both cell types need to be decided with a series of cell number titration to achieve proper differentiation (Figure 3A). After 4 weeks in co-cultures, the iOPCs are expected to be adequately differentiated into OLs that are positive for specific markers such as MBP and extend processes to ensheath axons (Figure 3B). The co-culture system can robustly boost up the number of synapses, indicating that the iOPCs provide a neuronal support through physical contacts or release of trophic factors (Figure 3C). We can maintain the co-cultures in acceptable health condition for up to 6 weeks and observe that the synapse number and other neuronal attributes plateau around the fifth week. Of note, astrocytes and microglia are not present in our preparations and their absence can be documented by checking the expression of specific markers (Figure 3D).&#160;The iOPCs express a good number of well-characterized genes that can potentially respond to and mediate the activity-dependent signals from neighboring neurons, in a paracrine (e.g. neurotrophins and metabolites) and/or a synaptic manner (Figure&#160;3E and 3F).&#160;

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/61778/generation-human-neurons-oligodendrocytes-from-pluripotent-stem-cells">Generation of Human Neurons and Oligodendrocytes from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Modeling Neuron-Oligodendrocyte Interactions</a>.&#160;The Representative Results section has been updated.

Erratum: Generation of Human Neurons and Oligodendrocytes from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Modeling Neuron-Oligodendrocyte Interactions

As células da linhagem de oligodendrócitos – incluindo células precursoras de oligodendrócitos (OPCs), oligodendrócitos mielinizantes e tipos de transição entre eles – constituem um grupo importante de células cerebrais humanas1 que participam ativamente de muitas funções críticas para o bom funcionamento e manutenção do nosso sistema nervoso central ao longo do desenvolvimento neural e envelhecimento 2,3,4 . Enquanto os oligodendrócitos são bem conhecidos por produzir mielina para facilitar a transmissão da atividade neuronal e apoiar a saúde axonal na substância branca, as OPCs são abundantes (~5%) na massa cinzenta, onde a mielinização é escassa e desempenham funções de sinalização dependentes da atividade para governar o comportamento de aprendizagem e a formação da memória 5,6,7,8 . Como as células oligodendrogliais funcionam e a disfunção na patogênese da doença de Alzheimer (DA) e outras condições neurodegenerativas associadas à idade têm sido pouco estudadas9. As inadequações de um sistema modelo adequado e as deficiências nos conhecimentos gerais para orientar um caminho experimental a seguir são as principais razões para essa lacuna.
À luz dos mais recentes avanços na derivação de células cerebrais humanas a partir de células-tronco pluripotentes, incluindo células-tronco embrionárias (ES) e células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas (iPS), tais modelos celulares em conjunto com ferramentas modernas de edição de genes surgiram como ferramentas robustas para lidar com o intrincado nexo de interações celulares no cérebro e são capazes de demonstrar manifestações de doenças específicas de humanos10, 11. Considerando que os tipos individuais de células cerebrais podem exibir efeitos distintos e até conflitantes diante das mesmas condições promotoras de DA12,13, essa metodologia de células-tronco oferece exclusivamente informações específicas do tipo de célula que anteriormente foram perdidas usando modelos estabelecidos in vivo ou in vitro que fornecem apenas leituras agregadas de coleções de tipos de células cerebrais. Na última década, um bom número de protocolos confiáveis tem sido desenvolvido para gerar neurônios humanos a partir da transdiferenciação de células ES/iPS ou conversão direta de outros tipos celulares terminalmente diferenciados (por exemplo, fibroblastos)14,15. Em particular, a aplicação de fatores-chave de transcrição neurogênica (por exemplo, neurogenina 2, Ngn2)16 a células-tronco pluripotentes humanas pode gerar uma população homogênea de tipos de células neuronais bem caracterizadas para culturas puras sem a necessidade de cocultura com células gliais12,17,18. Para oligodendrócitos humanos induzidos, existem alguns protocolos publicados que podem gerar células funcionais altamente semelhantes às suas contrapartes primárias, com uma ampla gama de eficiência e demanda em tempo e recursos 19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28 . Até o momento, nenhum desses protocolos foi aplicado para investigar como as células oligodendrogliais respondem e afetam a patogênese da DA.
Aqui, descrevemos nossos protocolos aprimorados para culturas únicas e mistas de neurônios induzidos por humanos (iNs) e OPCs/oligodendrócitos (iOPCs/iOLs). O protocolo iN descrito aqui é baseado na abordagem Ngn2 amplamente utilizada16 e tem a característica adicional de ser livre de glia. Os iNs resultantes são homogêneos e se assemelham muito aos neurônios excitatórios da camada cortical 2/3, com morfologia piramidal, padrão de expressão gênica e características eletrofisiológicascaracterísticas 17,18 (Figura 1). Para superar algumas das barreiras fundamentais na diferenciação dirigida de células-tronco pluripotentes, desenvolvemos um método simples e eficaz de pré-tratamento com baixa dose de dimetilsulfóxido (DMSO)29,30 e relatamos uma maior propensão das células ES/iPS humanas a se transdiferenciarem em iOPCs e iOLs31, com base em um protocolo amplamente adaptado de Douvaras e Fossati 32 . Simplificamos ainda mais o protocolo e incorporamos um composto promotor de diferenciação robusto, a clemastina 7,33,34, para acelerar o processo de maturação oligodendroglial. Como resultado (Figura 2), os iOPCs podem ser gerados em 2 semanas (~95% positivos para o marcador O4) e os iOLs em quatro semanas (expressando marcadores maduros MBP e PLP1). Curiosamente, descobrimos que as iOPCs sozinhas secretam uma quantidade notável de β amiloide (Aβ), consistente com os dados transcriptômicos independentes que mostram a expressão abundante da proteína precursora amiloide (APP) e da protease de processamento β-secretase (BACE1) em células de linhagem de oligodendrócitos35,36. Além disso, nosso sistema de cocultura iN-iOPC promove o revestimento de axônios por processos iOL positivos para MBP e fornece suporte significativo para a formação de sinapses (Figura 3). Assim, os protocolos que detalhamos abaixo têm vantagens técnicas e biológicas sobre os métodos de co-cultura neurônio-oligodendroglia previamente catalogados e são promissores na melhor modelagem da neurodegeneração na DA.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Accutase</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>7920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B27 supplement</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>17504044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bFGF</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>PHG 0266</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cAMP</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>A9501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clemastine</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>SML0445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM/F12 medium</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>36254</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>D12345</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Doxycycline</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>D3072</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>ScienCell</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H1 human ES cells</td>
			<td>WiCell</td>
			<td>WA01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matrigel</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>354234</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mTeSR plus</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>5825</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N2 supplement</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>17502001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neurobasal A medium</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>10888-022</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non Essential Amino Acids</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>11140-050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PDGF-AA</td>
			<td>R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td>221-AA-010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEI</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>71002-812</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pMDLg/pRRE</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>12251</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polybrene</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>TR-1003-G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pRSV-REV</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>12253</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Puromycin</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>A1113803</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ROCK Inhibitor Y-27632</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>72302</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SAG</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>4366</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>STEMdiff Neural Progenitor Freezing Media</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>5838</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>STEMdiff SMADi Neural Induction Kit</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>8581</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T3 triiodothyronine</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma</td>
			<td>T6397</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tempo-iOlogo: Human iPSC-derived OPCs</td>
			<td>Tempo BioScience</td>
			<td>SKU102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TetO-Ng2-Puro</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>52047</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VSV-G</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>12259</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of human neurons and oligodendrocytes from pluripotent stem cells for modeling neuron-oligodendrocyte interactions

Na doença de Alzheimer (DA) e outros distúrbios neurodegenerativos, a falha oligodendroglial é uma característica patológica precoce comum, mas como ela contribui para o desenvolvimento e progressão da doença, particularmente na massa cinzenta do cérebro, permanece amplamente desconhecida. A disfunção das células da linhagem de oligodendrócitos é marcada por deficiências na mielinização e auto-renovação prejudicada das células precursoras de oligodendrócitos (OPCs). Esses dois defeitos são causados, pelo menos em parte, pela interrupção das interações entre neurônios e oligodendrócitos ao longo do acúmulo de patologia. Os OPCs dão origem a oligodendrócitos mielinizantes durante o desenvolvimento do SNC. No córtex cerebral maduro, as OPCs são as principais células proliferativas (compreendendo ~ 5% do total de células cerebrais) e controlam a formação de nova mielina de maneira dependente da atividade neural. Tais comunicações neurônio-oligodendrócitos são significativamente pouco estudadas, especialmente no contexto de condições neurodegenerativas, como a DA, devido à falta de ferramentas apropriadas. Nos últimos anos, nosso grupo e outros fizeram progressos significativos para melhorar os protocolos atualmente disponíveis para gerar neurônios funcionais e oligodendrócitos individualmente a partir de células-tronco pluripotentes humanas. Neste manuscrito, descrevemos nossos procedimentos otimizados, incluindo o estabelecimento de um sistema de co-cultura para modelar as conexões neurônio-oligodendrócitos. Nossos resultados ilustrativos sugerem uma contribuição inesperada dos OPCs/oligodendrócitos para a amiloidose cerebral e a integridade das sinapses e destacam a utilidade dessa metodologia para a pesquisa da DA. Essa abordagem reducionista é uma ferramenta poderosa para dissecar as interações heterocelulares específicas da complexidade inerente dentro do cérebro. Espera-se que os protocolos que descrevemos aqui facilitem futuros estudos sobre defeitos oligodendrogliais na patogênese da neurodegeneração.

Geração direta de neurônios induzidos por humanos a partir de células-tronco pluripotentes humanas É muito importante que as células-tronco pluripotentes humanas iniciantes exibam um alto grau de pluripotência para a geração bem-sucedida de iNs ou iOPCs/iOLs. Portanto, as células devem ser coradas para marcadores específicos, como Oct4 e SOX2, antes de iniciar qualquer um dos protocolos de indução descritos no presente manuscrito (Figura 1A). Células H1 huma...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Human Neurons and Oligodendrocytes from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Modeling Neuron-Oligodendrocyte Interactions at JoVE.com

Generation of Human Neurons and Oligodendrocytes from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Modeling Neuron-Oligodendrocyte Interactions

As interações neurônio-glial na neurodegeneração não são bem compreendidas devido a ferramentas e métodos inadequados. Aqui, descrevemos protocolos otimizados para obter neurônios induzidos, células precursoras de oligodendrócitos e oligodendrócitos de células-tronco pluripotentes humanas e fornecemos exemplos dos valores desses métodos na compreensão das contribuições específicas do tipo celular na doença de Alzheimer.

Geração de neurônios humanos e oligodendrócitos a partir de células-tronco pluripotentes para modelagem de interações neurônio-oligodendrócitos

In Alzheimer&#8217;s disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative disorders, oligodendroglial failure is a common early pathological feature, but how it ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Generation of Neural Stem Cells from Discarded Human Fetal Cortical Tissue

Geração de células-tronco neurais de Discarded tecido fetal humano Cortical

Neural stem cells (NSCs) reside along the ventricular zone neuroepithelium during the development of the cortical plate. These early progenitors ...

Neurociência

Efficient Derivation of Human Neuronal Progenitors and Neurons from Pluripotent Human Embryonic Stem Cells with Small Molecule Induction

Derivação eficiente dos recursos humanos Progenitores Neuronal e Neurônios de pluripotentes células estaminais embrionárias humanas com a indução de moléculas pequenas

There is a large unfulfilled need for a clinically-suitable human neuronal cell source for repair or regeneration of the damaged central nervous system ...

The Specification of Telencephalic Glutamatergic Neurons from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

A especificação de telencefálicos neurónios glutamatérgicos de células-tronco pluripotentes humanas

Here, a stepwise procedure for efficiently generating telencephalic glutamatergic neurons from human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) has been described. The ...

A cGMP-applicable Expansion Method for Aggregates of Human Neural Stem and Progenitor Cells Derived From Pluripotent Stem Cells or Fetal Brain Tissue

Um Método de Expansão cGMP-aplicável para Agregados de Neural Humano-tronco e células progenitoras derivadas de células-tronco pluripotentes ou tecido cerebral do feto

A cell expansion technique to amass large numbers of cells from a single specimen for research experiments and clinical trials would greatly benefit the ...

Feeder-free Derivation of Neural Crest Progenitor Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Derivação sem alimentador de células da crista neural progenitoras pluripotentes humanas de células-tronco

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have great potential for studying human embryonic development, for modeling human diseases in the dish and as a ...

Directed Dopaminergic Neuron Differentiation from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Dirigido neurônios dopaminérgicos Diferenciação de Células-Tronco pluripotentes humanas

Dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta  (also known as A9 DA neurons) are the specific cell type that is lost in ...

Simple Generation of a High Yield Culture of Induced Neurons from Human Adult Skin Fibroblasts

Simples geração de uma cultura de alto rendimento de neurônios induzidas de fibroblastos de pele humana adulta

Induced neurons (iNs), the product of somatic cells directly converted to neurons, are a way to obtain patient-derived neurons from tissue that is easily ...

Post-differentiation Replating of Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Neurons for High-content Screening of Neuritogenesis and Synapse Maturation

Resposta pós-diferenciação de neurônios derivados de células-tronco pluripotentes humanas para triagem de alto conteúdo de Neuritogênese e maturação de sinapse

Neurons differentiated in two-dimensional culture from human pluripotent stem-cell-derived neural progenitor cells (NPCs) represent a powerful model ...

Conversion of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) into Functional Spinal and Cranial Motor Neurons Using PiggyBac Vectors

Conversion of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells iPSCs into Functional Spinal and Cranial Motor Neurons Using PiggyBac Vectors

Conversão de pilhas de haste pluripotentes induzidas humanas (iPSCs) em neurônios de motor espinal e craniano funcionais usando vetores de PiggyBac

We describe here a method to obtain functional spinal and cranial motor neurons from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Direct conversion into ...

Generation of Oligodendrocytes and Oligodendrocyte-Conditioned Medium for Co-Culture Experiments

Geração de Oligodendrocytes e Oligodendrocyte-Conditioned Medium para Experimentos de Cocultura

In the central nervous system, oligodendrocytes are well-known for their role in axon myelination, that accelerates the propagation of action potentials ...