This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1942418 awarded to A.S., and a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship awarded to C.M.B.H., under Grant No. 1644760. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The authors thank Dr. Noel Vera-Gonz&#225;lez for lipid vesicle characterization data acquisition. The authors thank Professor Robert Hurt (Brown University) for the use of his Zetasizer. The authors thank the Brown University Mass Spectrometry Facility, in particular, Dr. Tun-Li Shen for assistance with quantifying lipid composition.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest or competing financial interests.

This protocol allows for the formation of lipid vesicles, supported lipid bilayers, and suspended lipid bilayers. Here, critical steps are presented to form each of these structures. When forming lipid vesicles, it is important to extrude above the transition temperature of the lipid39. When below the transition temperature, the lipid is physically present in its ordered gel phase39. In this ordered phase the hydrocarbon lipid tails are fully extended allowing for close pac...

The cell membrane, composed primarily of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins, is a crucial component of all living cells1. With organization driven by lipid amphiphilicity, the cell membrane functions as a protective barrier and regulates how the cell interacts with its surrounding environment2. Several cellular processes are dependent on the lipid and protein composition of the membrane1,2. For example, cell membrane interactions are important for effective drug delivery3. Pharmaceuticals, biologics, nanomaterials, biological toxins, and environmental toxicants can impact the integrity of a cell membrane, thereby affecting cellular function4. The construction of in vitro cell mimicking membrane models based on the lipid composition of cell membranes has the potential to provide facile tools to greatly enhance the study of the potential impact of these materials on cells.
Model lipid bilayers include lipid vesicles, supported lipid bilayers, and suspended lipid bilayers. Supported lipid bilayers are a model of the phospholipid cell membrane commonly used in biotechnology applications where lipid vesicles are ruptured on a supported substrate material5,6,7,8,9. One common technique used to monitor bilayer formation is quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D), which examines the adsorption of vesicles in comparison to the bulk liquid properties in situ8,10,11,12,13,14. Previously, QCM-D has been used to demonstrate that under flow conditions, once a critical vesicle coverage of phosphatidylcholine (PC) lipid vesicles is achieved on the surface, they spontaneously rupture into rigid lipid bilayers15. Previous work has also investigated supported lipid bilayer formation with varying lipid compositions16, incorporation of lipid proteins17,18,19, and utilizing polymer cushions20, yielding supported lipid bilayers capable of mimicking various aspects of cell membrane function.
Lipid bilayers have been used to mimic various biological barriers from sub-cellular to organ levels including mitochondrion, red blood cell, and liver cell membranes by altering the phospholipid, cholesterol, and glycolipid components21. These more complex multi-lipid vesicles may require additional methods to achieve vesicle rupture, depending on the lipid composition. For example, previous studies have utilized an &#945;-helical (AH) peptide derived from the hepatitis C virus&#39;s nonstructural protein 5A to induce bilayer formation by destabilizing the adsorbed lipid vesicles22,23. Using this AH peptide, supported lipid bilayers mimicking placental cells have previously been formed24. The great potential of supported lipid bilayers for biomedical applications has been demonstrated with investigations spanning molecular and nanoparticle transport25, 26, environmental toxicant interactions27, protein assembly and function17,18,19, peptide arrangement and insertion28, 29, drug screening30, and microfluidic platforms31.
Suspended lipid bilayers have been used for pharmaceutical screening studies via a parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) where a lipid bilayer is suspended across a porous hydrophobic insert32,33,34,35. PAMPA lipid models have been developed for different biological interfaces including the blood-brain, buccal, intestinal, and transdermal interfaces36. By combining both the supported lipid bilayer and PAMPA techniques, adsorption, permeability, and embedment of compounds within lipid components of a desired tissue or cell type can be thoroughly studied.
This protocol describes the fabrication and application of in vitro cell membrane lipid bilayer models to investigate several molecular interactions. Preparation of both uni-lipid and multi-lipid supported and suspended lipid bilayers is detailed. To form a supported lipid bilayer, lipid vesicles are first developed using thin-film hydration and extrusion methods followed by physicochemical characterization. Formation of a supported lipid bilayer using QCM-D monitoring and fabrication of suspended lipid membranes for use in PAMPA is discussed. Finally, multi-lipid vesicles for the development of more complex cell mimicking membranes are examined. Using both types of fabricated lipid membranes, this protocol demonstrates how this tool can be used to study molecular interactions. Overall, this technique constructs cell mimicking lipid bilayers with high reproducibility and versatility.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine&#160; (POPC, 16:0-18:1 PC)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850457</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (sodium salt) (POPS, 16:0-18:1 PS)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (16:0-18:1 PE)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850757</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-2-phospho-L-serine (DOPS, 18:1 PS)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840035</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC, 18:1 (&#916;9-Cis) PC)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850375</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE, 18:1 (&#916;9-Cis) PE)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850725</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-ethylphosphocholine (chloride salt) (18:0 EPC (Cl Salt))</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>890703</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 mL Luer-Loc syringes</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>309657</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40 mL sample vial, amber with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)/rubber liner</td>
			<td>Duran Wheaton Kimble</td>
			<td>W224605</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetonitrile</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>271004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alconox</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50-821-781</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium formate</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>LSAC70221</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C18, 3.5 um x 50 mm column, SunFire</td>
			<td>Waters</td>
			<td>&#160;186002551</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>LSAC288306</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cuvette UV Micro LCH 8.5 mm, 50 um, RPK</td>
			<td>Sarstedt</td>
			<td>67.758.001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>36735</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>LSAC472301</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Pharmco</td>
			<td>111000200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter supports, 10 mm</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610014</td>
			<td>Size for mini extruder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Folded capillary zeta cell</td>
			<td>Malvern Panalytical</td>
			<td>DTS1070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>190764-4L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kimwipes</td>
			<td>Kimberly Clark</td>
			<td>34256</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-&#945;-phosphatidylinositol (soy) (Soy PI)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-&#945;-phosphitidylcholine (Egg, Chicken)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840051</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LiposoFast &#174; LF-50</td>
			<td>Avestin, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>179337 - 4L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-extruder set with holder/heating block</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MultiScreen-IP Filter Plate, 0.45&#160;&#181;m, clear, sterile</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>MAIPS4510</td>
			<td>for PAMPA studies</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrogen gas, ultrapure</td>
			<td>TechAir</td>
			<td>NI T5.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nuclepore hydrophilic membranes, polycarbonate, 19 mm, 0.1 um</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>800309</td>
			<td>Size for mini extruder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nuclepore hydrophilic membranes, polycarbonate, 25 mm, 0.1 um</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>110605</td>
			<td>Size for large extruder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>Bemis</td>
			<td>PM999</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffer saline (PBS), 10x</td>
			<td>Genesee Scienfitic</td>
			<td>25-507X</td>
			<td>Dilute to 1x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Qsoft 401 software</td>
			<td>Biolin Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation Q-Sense Analyzer</td>
			<td>Biolin Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scintillation vials, borosilicate glass vials, 20 mL</td>
			<td>Duran Wheaton Kimble</td>
			<td>986561</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon Dioxide, thin QSensors</td>
			<td>Biolin Scientific</td>
			<td>QSX 303</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>LSACS5886</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP166-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solvent Safe pipette tips</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S8064</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sphingomyelin (Egg, Chicken)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>860061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trizma base</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>LSACT1503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-ethylenediaminetretaacetic acid</td>
			<td>Caisson Labs</td>
			<td>TRL01-6X100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman drain disc, 25 mm</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>230600</td>
			<td>Size for large extruder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zetasizer ZS90</td>
			<td>Malvern Panalytical</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zetasizer 7.01 software</td>
			<td>Malvern Panalytical</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assembly of cell mimicking supported and suspended lipid bilayer models for the study of molecular interactions

Model cell membranes are a useful screening tool with applications ranging from early drug discovery to toxicity studies. The cell membrane is a crucial protective barrier for all cell types, separating the internal cellular components from the extracellular environment. These membranes are composed largely of a lipid bilayer, which contains outer hydrophilic head groups and inner hydrophobic tail groups, along with various proteins and cholesterol. The composition and structure of the lipids themselves play a crucial role in regulating biological function, including interactions between cells and the cellular microenvironment, which may contain pharmaceuticals, biological toxins, and environmental toxicants. In this study, methods to formulate uni-lipid and multi-lipid supported and suspended cell mimicking lipid bilayers are described. Previously, uni-lipid phosphatidylcholine (PC) lipid bilayers as well as multi-lipid placental trophoblast-inspired lipid bilayers were developed for use in understanding molecular interactions. Here, methods for achieving both types of bilayer models will be presented. For cell mimicking multi-lipid bilayers, the desired lipid composition is first determined via lipid extraction from primary cells or cell lines followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Using this composition, lipid vesicles are fabricated using a thin-film hydration and extrusion method and their hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential are characterized. Supported and suspended lipid bilayers can then be formed using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) and on a porous membrane for use in a parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA), respectively. The representative results highlight the reproducibility and versatility of in vitro cell membrane lipid bilayer models. The methods presented can aid in rapid, facile assessment of the interaction mechanisms, such as permeation, adsorption, and embedment, of various molecules and macromolecules with a cell membrane, helping in the screening of drug candidates and prediction of potential cellular toxicity.

This protocol details methods for forming supported and suspended lipid bilayers (Figure 1). The first step to forming a supported lipid bilayer is to develop lipid vesicles. The mini extruder allows for small volumes of lipid vesicles to be prepared (1 mL or less), while the large extruder allows for 5-50 mL of lipid vesicles to be prepared in one batch. Size distributions of uni-lipid vesicles formed by either the mini or large extruder are shown in Figure 2A....

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assembly of Cell Mimicking Supported and Suspended Lipid Bilayer Models for the Study of Molecular Interactions at JoVE.com

Assembly of Cell Mimicking Supported and Suspended Lipid Bilayer Models for the Study of Molecular Interactions

This protocol describes the formation of cell mimicking uni-lipid and multi-lipid vesicles, supported lipid bilayers, and suspended lipid bilayers. These in vitro models can be adapted to incorporate a variety of lipid types and can be used to investigate various molecule and macromolecule interactions.

Model cell membranes are a useful screening tool with applications ranging from early drug discovery to toxicity studies. The cell membrane is a crucial ...

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Bioengineering

3.4K Views.  Worcester Polytechnic Institute. This protocol describes the formation of cell mimicking uni-lipid and multi-lipid vesicles, supported lipid bilayers, and suspended lipid bilayers. These in vitro models can be adapted to incorporate a variety of lipid types and can be used to investigate various molecule and macromolecule interactions. 

Video: Assembly of Cell Mimicking Supported and Suspended Lipid Bilayer Models for the Study of Molecular Interactions

Synthesis, Assembly, and Characterization of Monolayer Protected Gold Nanoparticle Films for Protein Monolayer Electrochemistry

Colloidal gold nanoparticles protected with alkanethiolate ligands called monolayer protected gold clusters (MPCs) are synthesized and subsequently incorporated into film assemblies that serve as adsorption platforms for protein monolayer electrochemistry (PME). PME is utilized as the model system for studying electrochemical properties of redox proteins by confining them to an adsorption platform at a modified electrode, which also serves as a redox partner for electron transfer (ET) reactions. Studies have shown that gold nanoparticle film assemblies of this nature provide for a more homogeneous protein adsorption environment and promote ET without distance dependence compared to the more traditional systems modified with alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAM).1-3 In this paper, MPCs functionalized with hexanethiolate ligands are synthesized using a modified Brust reaction4 and characterized with ultraviolet visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and proton (1H) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). MPC films are assembled on SAM modified gold electrode interfaces by using a "dip cycle" method of alternating MPC layers and dithiol linking molecules. Film growth at gold electrode is tracked electrochemically by measuring changes to the double layer charging current of the system. Analogous films assembled on silane modified glass slides allow for optical monitoring of film growth and cross-sectional TEM analysis provides an estimated film thickness. During film assembly, manipulation of the MPC ligand protection as well as the interparticle linkage mechanism allow for networked films, that are readily adaptable, to interface with redox protein having different adsorption mechanism. For example, Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin (AZ) can be adsorbed hydrophobically to dithiol-linked films of hexanethiolate MPCs and cytochrome c (cyt c) can be immobilized electrostatically at a carboxylic acid modified MPC interfacial layer. In this report, we focus on the film protocol for the AZ system exclusively. Investigations involving the adsorption of proteins on MPC modified synthetic platforms could further the understanding of interactions between biomolecules and man-made materials, and consequently aid the development of biosensor schemes, ET modeling systems, and synthetic biocompatible materials.5-8

Alkanethiolate stabilized gold colloids known as monolayer protected clusters (MPCs) are synthesized, characterized, and assembled into thin films as an adsorption interface for protein monolayer electrochemistry of simple redox protein like Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin (AZ) and cytochrome c (cyt c).

Colloidal gold nanoparticles protected with alkanethiolate ligands called monolayer protected gold clusters (MPCs) are synthesized and subsequently ...

Adhesion Frequency Assay for In Situ Kinetics Analysis of Cross-Junctional Molecular Interactions at the Cell-Cell Interface

The micropipette adhesion assay was developed in 1998 to measure two-dimensional (2D) receptor-ligand binding kinetics1. The assay uses a human red blood cell (RBC) as adhesion sensor and presenting cell for one of the interacting molecules. It employs micromanipulation to bring the RBC into contact with another cell that expresses the other interacting molecule with precisely controlled area and time to enable bond formation. The adhesion event is detected as RBC elongation upon pulling the two cells apart. By controlling the density of the ligands immobilized on the RBC surface, the probability of adhesion is kept in mid-range between 0 and 1. The adhesion probability is estimated from the frequency of adhesion events in a sequence of repeated contact cycles between the two cells for a given contact time. Varying the contact time generates a binding curve. Fitting a probabilistic model for receptor-ligand reaction kinetics1 to the binding curve returns the 2D affinity and off-rate.
The assay has been validated using interactions of Fc&gamma; receptors with IgG Fc1-6, selectins with glycoconjugate ligands6-9, integrins with ligands10-13, homotypical cadherin binding14, T cell receptor and coreceptor with peptide-major histocompatibility complexes15-19.
The method has been used to quantify regulations of 2D kinetics by biophysical factors, such as the membrane microtopology5, membrane anchor2, molecular orientation and length6, carrier stiffness9, curvature20, and impingement force20, as well as biochemical factors, such as modulators of the cytoskeleton and membrane microenvironment where the interacting molecules reside and the surface organization of these molecules15,17,19.
The method has also been used to study the concurrent binding of dual receptor-ligand species3,4, and trimolecular interactions19 using a modified model21.
The major advantage of the method is that it allows study of receptors in their native membrane environment. The results could be very different from those obtained using purified receptors17. It also allows study of the receptor-ligand interactions in a sub-second timescale with temporal resolution well beyond the typical biochemical methods.
To illustrate the micropipette adhesion frequency method, we show kinetics measurement of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) functionalized on RBCs binding to integrin &alpha;L&beta;2 on neutrophils with dimeric E-selectin in the solution to activate &alpha;L&beta;2.

Adhesion Frequency Assay for In Situ Kinetics Analysis of Cross-Junctional Molecular Interactions at the Cell-Cell Interface

An adhesion frequency assay for measuring receptor-ligand interaction kinetics when both molecules are anchored on the surfaces of the interacting cells is described. This mechanically-based assay is exemplified using a micropipette-pressurized human red blood cell as adhesion sensor and integrin &alpha;L&beta;2 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 as interacting receptors and ligands.

The micropipette adhesion assay was developed in 1998 to measure two-dimensional (2D) receptor-ligand binding kinetics1. The assay uses a human red blood ...

Helical Organization of Blood Coagulation Factor VIII on Lipid Nanotubes

Cryo-electron microscopy (Cryo-EM)1 is a powerful approach to investigate the functional structure of proteins and complexes in a hydrated state and membrane environment2.
Coagulation Factor VIII (FVIII)3 is a multi-domain blood plasma glycoprotein. Defect or deficiency of FVIII is the cause for Hemophilia type A&#160;-&#160;a severe bleeding disorder. Upon proteolytic activation, FVIII binds to the serine protease Factor IXa on the negatively charged platelet membrane, which is critical for normal blood clotting4. Despite the pivotal role FVIII plays in coagulation, structural information for its membrane-bound state is incomplete5. Recombinant FVIII concentrate is the most effective drug against Hemophilia type A and commercially available FVIII can be expressed as human or porcine, both forming functional complexes with human Factor IXa6,7.
In this study we present a combination of Cryo-electron microscopy (Cryo-EM), lipid nanotechnology and structure analysis applied to resolve the membrane-bound structure of two highly homologous FVIII forms: human and porcine. The methodology developed in our laboratory to helically organize the two functional recombinant FVIII forms on negatively charged lipid nanotubes (LNT) is described.&#160;The representative results demonstrate that our approach is sufficiently sensitive to define the differences in the helical organization between the two highly homologous in sequence (86% sequence identity) proteins. Detailed protocols for the helical organization, Cryo-EM and electron tomography (ET) data acquisition are given. The two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) structure analysis applied to obtain the 3D reconstructions of human and porcine FVIII-LNT is discussed. The presented human and porcine FVIII-LNT structures show the potential of the proposed methodology to calculate the functional, membrane-bound organization of blood coagulation Factor VIII at high resolution.

We present a combination of Cryo-electron microscopy, lipid nanotechnology, and structure analysis applied to resolve the membrane-bound structure of two highly homologous FVIII forms: human and porcine. The methodology developed in our laboratory&#160;to helically organize the two functional recombinant FVIII forms on negatively charged lipid nanotubes (LNT) is described.

Cryo-electron microscopy (Cryo-EM)1 is a powerful approach to investigate the functional structure of proteins and complexes in a hydrated state and ...

Lipid Bilayer Vesicle Generation Using Microfluidic Jetting

Bottom-up synthetic biology presents a novel approach for investigating and reconstituting biochemical systems and, potentially, minimal organisms. This emerging field engages engineers, chemists, biologists, and physicists to design and assemble basic biological components into complex, functioning systems from the bottom up. Such bottom-up systems could lead to the development of artificial cells for fundamental biological inquiries and innovative therapies1,2. Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) can serve as a model platform for synthetic biology due to their cell-like membrane structure and size. Microfluidic jetting, or microjetting, is a technique that allows for the generation of GUVs with controlled size, membrane composition, transmembrane protein incorporation, and encapsulation3. The basic principle of this method is the use of multiple, high-frequency fluid pulses generated by a piezo-actuated inkjet device to deform a suspended lipid bilayer into a GUV. The process is akin to blowing soap bubbles from a soap film. By varying the composition of the jetted solution, the composition of the encompassing solution, and/or the components included in the bilayer, researchers can apply this technique to create customized vesicles. This paper describes the procedure to generate simple vesicles from a droplet interface bilayer by microjetting.

Microfluidic jetting against a droplet interface lipid bilayer provides a reliable way to generate vesicles with control over membrane asymmetry, incorporation of transmembrane proteins, and encapsulation of material. This technique can be applied to study a variety of biological systems where compartmentalized biomolecules are desired.

Bottom-up synthetic biology presents a novel approach for investigating and reconstituting biochemical systems and, potentially, minimal organisms. This ...

Preparation of Mica Supported Lipid Bilayers for High Resolution Optical Microscopy Imaging

Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are widely used as a model for studying membrane properties (phase separation, clustering, dynamics) and its interaction with other compounds, such as drugs or peptides. However SLB characteristics differ depending on the support used. 
Commonly used techniques for SLB imaging and measurements are single molecule fluorescence microscopy, FCS and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Because most optical imaging studies are carried out on a glass support, while AFM requires an extremely flat surface (generally mica), results from these techniques cannot be compared directly, since the charge and smoothness properties of these materials strongly influence diffusion. Unfortunately, the high level of manual dexterity required for the cutting and gluing thin slices of mica to the glass slide presents a hurdle to routine use of mica for SLB preparation. Although this would be the method of choice, such prepared mica surfaces often end up being uneven (wavy) and difficult to image, especially with small working distance, high numerical aperture lenses. Here we present a simple and reproducible method for preparing thin, flat mica surfaces for lipid vesicle deposition and SLB preparation. Additionally, our custom made chamber requires only very small volumes of vesicles for SLB formation. The overall procedure results in the efficient, simple and inexpensive production of high quality lipid bilayer surfaces that are directly comparable to those used in AFM studies.

We present a method of preparing mica supported lipid bilayers for high resolution microscopy. Mica is transparent and flat on an atomic scale, but rarely used in imaging because of handling difficulties; our preparation results in even deposition of the mica sheet, and reduces the material used in bilayer preparation.

Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are widely used as a model for studying membrane properties (phase separation, clustering, dynamics) and its interaction ...

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging and Force Spectroscopy of Supported Lipid Bilayers

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient magnification to examine membrane substructures and even individual molecules. AFM can act as a force probe to measure interactions and mechanical properties of membranes. Supported lipid bilayers are conventionally used as membrane models in AFM studies. In this protocol, we demonstrate how to prepare supported bilayers and characterize their structure and mechanical properties using AFM. These include bilayer thickness and breakthrough force. 
The information provided by AFM imaging and force spectroscopy help define mechanical and chemical properties of membranes. These properties play an important role in cellular processes such as maintaining cell hemostasis from environmental stress, bringing membrane proteins together, and stabilizing protein complexes.

We describe a protocol for preparation of supported lipid bilayers and its characterization using atomic force microscopy and force spectroscopy.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient ...

Biomembrane Fabrication by the Solvent-assisted Lipid Bilayer (SALB) Method

In order to mimic cell membranes, the supported lipid bilayer (SLB) is an attractive platform which enables in vitro investigation of membrane-related processes while conferring biocompatibility and biofunctionality to solid substrates. The spontaneous adsorption and rupture of phospholipid vesicles is the most commonly used method to form SLBs. However, under physiological conditions, vesicle fusion (VF) is limited to only a subset of lipid compositions and solid supports. Here, we describe a one-step general procedure called the solvent-assisted lipid bilayer (SALB) formation method in order to form SLBs which does not require vesicles. The SALB method involves the deposition of lipid molecules onto a solid surface in the presence of water-miscible organic solvents (e.g., isopropanol) and subsequent solvent-exchange with aqueous buffer solution in order to trigger SLB formation. The continuous solvent exchange step enables application of the method in a flow-through configuration suitable for monitoring bilayer formation and subsequent alterations using a wide range of surface-sensitive biosensors. The SALB method can be used to fabricate SLBs on a wide range of hydrophilic solid surfaces, including those which are intractable to vesicle fusion. In addition, it enables fabrication of SLBs composed of lipid compositions which cannot be prepared using the vesicle fusion method. Herein, we compare results obtained with the SALB and conventional vesicle fusion methods on two illustrative hydrophilic surfaces, silicon dioxide and gold. To optimize the experimental conditions for preparation of high quality bilayers prepared via the SALB method, the effect of various parameters, including the type of organic solvent in the deposition step, the rate of solvent exchange, and the lipid concentration is discussed along with troubleshooting tips. Formation of supported membranes containing high fractions of cholesterol is also demonstrated with the SALB method, highlighting the technical capabilities of the SALB technique for a wide range of membrane configurations.

Biomembrane Fabrication by the Solvent-assisted Lipid Bilayer SALB Method

We present an experimental protocol to form a supported lipid bilayer on solid substrates without using lipid vesicles. We demonstrate a one-step method to form a lipid bilayer on silicon dioxide and gold as well as supported membranes with cholesterol-enriched domain for various biological applications.

In order to mimic cell membranes, the supported lipid bilayer (SLB) is an attractive platform which enables in vitro investigation of membrane-related ...

Preparation of 3D Collagen Gels and Microchannels for the Study of 3D Interactions In Vivo

Historically, most cellular processes have been studied in only 2 dimensions. While these studies have been informative about general cell signaling mechanisms, they neglect important cellular cues received from the structural and mechanical properties of the local microenvironment and extracellular matrix (ECM). To understand how cells interact within a physiological ECM, it is important to study them in the context of 3 dimensional assays. Cell migration, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation are only a few processes that have been shown to be impacted by local changes in the mechanical properties of a 3-dimensional ECM. Collagen I, a core fibrillar component of the ECM, is more than a simple structural element of a tissue. Under normal conditions, mechanical cues from the collagen network direct morphogenesis and maintain cellular structures. In diseased microenvironments, such as the tumor microenvironment, the collagen network is often dramatically remodeled, demonstrating altered composition, enhanced deposition and altered fiber organization. In breast cancer, the degree of fiber alignment is important, as an increase in aligned fibers perpendicular to the tumor boundary has been correlated to poorer patient prognosis1. Aligned collagen matrices result in increased dissemination of tumor cells via persistent migration2,3. The following is a simple protocol for embedding cells within a 3-dimensional, fibrillar collagen hydrogel. This protocol is readily adaptable to many platforms, and can reproducibly generate both aligned and random collagen matrices for investigation of cell migration, cell division, and other cellular processes in a tunable, 3-dimensional, physiological microenvironment.

Preparation of 3D Collagen Gels and Microchannels for the Study of 3D Interactions In Vivo

Collagen is a core component of the ECM, and provides essential cues for several cellular processes ranging from migration to differentiation and proliferation. Provided here is a protocol for embedding cells within 3D collagen hydrogels, and a more advanced technique for generating randomized or aligned collagen matrices using PDMS microchannels.

Historically, most cellular processes have been studied in only 2 dimensions.  While these studies have been informative about general cell signaling ...

Automated Lipid Bilayer Membrane Formation Using a Polydimethylsiloxane Thin Film

An artificial lipid bilayer, or black lipid membrane (BLM), is a powerful tool for studying ion channels and protein interactions, as well as for biosensor applications. However, conventional BLM formation techniques have several drawbacks and they often require specific expertise and laborious processes. In particular, conventional BLMs suffer from low formation success rates and inconsistent membrane formation time. Here, we demonstrate a storable and transportable BLM formation system with controlled thinning-out time and enhanced BLM formation rate by replacing conventionally used films (polytetrafluoroethylene, polyoxymethylene, polystyrene) to polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). In this experiment, a porous-structured polymer such as PDMS thin film is used. In addition, as opposed to conventionally used solvents with low viscosity, the use of squalene permitted a controlled thinning-out time via slow solvent absorption by PDMS, prolonging membrane lifetime. In addition, by using a mixture of squalene and hexadecane, the freezing point of the lipid solution was increased (~16 &#176;C), in addition, membrane precursors were produced that can be indefinitely stored and readily transported. These membrane precursors have reduced BLM formation time of &#60; 1 hr and achieved a BLM formation rate of ~80%. Moreover, ion channel experiments with gramicidin A demonstrated the feasibility of the membrane system.

We demonstrate a storable, transportable lipid bilayer formation system. A lipid bilayer membrane can be formed within 1 hr with over 80% success rate when a frozen membrane precursor is brought to ambient temperature. This system will reduce laborious processes and expertise associated with ion channels.

An artificial lipid bilayer, or black lipid membrane (BLM), is a powerful tool for studying ion channels and protein interactions, as well as for ...

Micropatterning and Assembly of 3D Microvessels

In vitro platforms to study endothelial cells and vascular biology are largely limited to 2D endothelial cell culture, flow chambers with polymer or glass based substrates, and hydrogel-based tube formation assays. These assays, while informative, do not recapitulate lumen geometry, proper extracellular matrix, and multi-cellular proximity, which play key roles in modulating vascular function. This manuscript describes an injection molding method to generate engineered vessels with diameters on the order of 100 &#181;m. Microvessels are fabricated by seeding endothelial cells in a microfluidic channel embedded within a native type I collagen hydrogel. By incorporating parenchymal cells within the collagen matrix prior to channel formation, specific tissue microenvironments can be modeled and studied. Additional modulations of hydrodynamic properties and media composition allow for control of complex vascular function within the desired microenvironment. This platform allows for the study of perivascular cell recruitment, blood-endothelium interactions, flow response, and tissue-microvascular interactions. Engineered microvessels offer the ability to isolate the influence from individual components of a vascular niche and precisely control its chemical, mechanical, and biological properties to study vascular biology in both health and disease.

This manuscript presents an injection molding method to engineer microvessels that recapitulate physiological properties of endothelium. The microfluidic-based process creates patent 3D vascular networks with tailorable conditions, such as flow, cellular composition, geometry, and biochemical gradients. The fabrication process and examples of potential applications are described.

In vitro platforms to study endothelial cells and vascular biology are largely limited to 2D endothelial cell culture, flow chambers with polymer or glass ...