The work was supported with grant funding obtained from the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) grant number, HDI/CRP/012, Research Directorate of the University of Venda, grant I595, Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa (grant numbers, 75464 &#38; 92598) awarded to AS.

1. Transformation
NOTE: Use sterile glassware for culture, pipette tips, and freshly prepared and autoclaved media. Prepare cultures of the E. coli cells in 2x yeast tryptone (YT) [1.6% tryptone (w/v), 1% yeast extract (w/v), 0.5% NaCl (w/v), 1.5% agar (w/v)] agar. General reagents used in the protocol and their sources are provided in the Table of Materials.
<ol>
	<li>Label 2.0 mL microcentrifuge tubes and aliquot 50 &#181;L of competent E. coli dnaK756cells, keeping the cells on ice.</li>
	<li>To the 2.0 mL microcentrifuge tubes with competent cells, aliquot 10-50 ng of pQE60/DnaK, pQE60/KPf, and pQE60/KPf-V436F plasmid DNA9&#160;into separate tubes.</li>
	<li>Keep the 2.0 mL microcentrifuge tubes containing the competent cells and plasmid DNA on ice for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Heat shock the competent cells-DNA mix for 60 s at 42 &#176;C and return the microcentrifuge tubes back on ice for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Add 950 &#181;L of fresh 2x YT broth (pre-incubated at 37 &#176;C) and incubate at 37 &#176;C while shaking at 150 revolutions/min for 1 h. Leave the cells to grow for much longer to encourage their recovery if necessary. 
	NOTE: Avoid shaking the cells vigorously.</li>
	<li>Pipette 100 &#181;L of the cells and spread them onto 2x YT agar plates containing 50 &#181;g/mL kanamycin, 10 &#181;g/mL tetracycline for the respective strain, and 100 &#181;g/mL ampicillin (see Table of Materials) for plasmid selection.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the rest of the cells (whose volume is now approximately 900 &#181;L) for 1 min at 5000 x g (at 4 &#176;C) using a benchtop microcentrifuge.</li>
	<li>Decant about 800 &#181;L of the broth and use the remaining medium to resuspend the pelleted cells.</li>
	<li>Plate the recovered cells onto the 2x YT agar plate.</li>
	<li>Incubate both agar plates overnight (or approximately 17 h) at 37 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: These cells grow very slowly and may need to be incubated for much longer. Be careful to spot the colonies which may start off very small. The plate containing cells resuspended after centrifugation (step 1.7) serves as a back-up in case the transformation efficiency of the cells is poor, in which case the pelleted cells may improve the recovery of any transformed cells. However, if the transformation efficiency is excellent, the agar plate onto which concentrated cells were plated may be characterized by an overgrown culture upon incubation, making it difficult to identify single colonies. In that case, the other agar plate may be the one on which well-spaced colonies grow.</li>
</ol>
2. Cell plating
<ol>
	<li>Pick up a single colony from the transformants and inoculate it into 10 mL of 2x YT broth supplemented with 50 &#181;g/mL of kanamycin, 10 &#181;g/mL of tetracycline for the selection of the E. coli dnaK756&#160;cells, and 100 &#181;g/mL ampicillin for plasmid selection. 
	NOTE: Use flasks (&#8805;50 mL) to ensure aeration when agitating the culture. Incubate the inoculum overnight (17 h) at 37 &#176;C while shaking at 150 rotations/min.</li>
	<li>Take an absorbance reading at OD600&#160;the following morning.</li>
	<li>Clean the workbench surface using 75% ethanol to swab the surface in preparation for cell spotting.</li>
	<li>Using a 2 mL microcentrifuge tube, standardize the culture to an OD600&#160;reading of 2.0 using 2x YT broth. 
	NOTE: Ensure that the OD readings are taken correctly as this step is important for standardizing cell density across the various samples.</li>
	<li>Using 2 mL microcentrifuge tubes, prepare serial dilutions of the cells from 100&#160;to 10-5.</li>
	<li>Incubate the agar plates to be used to spot the cells onto in an oven set at 40 &#176;C to allow the plates to dry with lids partially open to ensure water vapor escapes. 
	NOTE: To ensure the cells are spotted at uniformly separated distances, draw lines on a piece of paper onto which a template of spotting sites is printed.</li>
	<li>Spot 2 &#181;L of the serially diluted cells onto the agar plates supplemented with 50 &#181;g/mL kanamycin, 10 &#181;g/mL tetracycline, 100 &#181;g/mL ampicillin, and 0.5 mM IPTG (for the induction of expression of the recombinant proteins) (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Spot each sample onto two separate plates (one to be incubated at 37 &#176;C and the other at 43.5 &#176;C). 
	NOTE: Avoid piercing the agar plate.</li>
	<li>Spot control samples onto the same plate as the experimental samples to minimize environmental effects.</li>
	<li>Conduct the spotting quickly to ensure the process is completed before the cells start growing, as this may generate skewed growth patterns. 
	NOTE: It is important to avoid aerosols when spotting, as these would contaminate the plates. It is also important to keep the plates closed in between the spotting to avoid contamination.</li>
	<li>Incubate one plate at 37 &#176;C (permissive growth temperature) and the other at the non-permissive growth temperature of 43.5 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: Incubate the plates facing upside down to avoid steam collecting onto the lid, as the condensed water would wash the spotted colonies off their positions.</li>
	<li>Place all the plates in the incubators at the same time and avoid opening the incubator until the following morning. 
	NOTE: Opening the incubator door several times during incubation of the plates is discouraged. This is because the access of air into the incubator may result in temperature fluctuations that adversely impact cell growth.</li>
</ol>
3. Confirming expression of recombinant proteins
<ol>
	<li>Using a sterile loop, pick up part of the remaining cells from the same colony of transformed E. coli dnaK756&#160;cells.</li>
	<li>Inoculate the cells into 10 mL YT broth supplemented with 50 &#181;g/mL kanamycin, 10 &#181;g/mL tetracycline, and 100 &#181;g/mL ampicillin. Incubate overnight (17 h) at 37 &#176;C while shaking at 150 revolutions/min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the culture into 90 mL of sterile 2x YT broth containing the necessary antibiotics as mentioned in step 3.2. Let the cells grow to mid-log phase (OD600 = 0.4-0.6).</li>
	<li>Take 2 mL of the sample culture before induction (0 h induction sample).</li>
	<li>Add IPTG to a final concentration of 1 mM to induce protein production and re-incubate the cells at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Take a second 2 mL sample 6 h post-induction.</li>
	<li>Harvest the cells by centrifuging at 5000 x g for 10 min. Keep the centrifuge temperature at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the pellet in PBS buffer (137 mM NaCl, 27 mM KCl, 4.3 mM Na2HPO4, 1.4 mM KH2PO4) and store at -20 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
4. SDS-PAGE and western blot analyses
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 2x 10% SDS gels as previously described19.</li>
	<li>Keep one of the SDS-PAGE gels for subsequent staining using Coomassie stain to view the protein bands. Use the second SDS-PAGE gel to conduct western blot analysis.</li>
	<li>Aliquot 80 &#181;L of the resuspended samples and mix it with 20 &#181;L of 4x Laemmli SDS loading buffer.</li>
	<li>Boil the suspension at 100 &#176;C for 10 min. Then load 10 &#181;L of each sample onto the precast SDS gel (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Perform electrophoresis at room temperature for 1 h using a voltage of 120 V in a 1x solution of SDS running buffer (25 mm Tris, 250 mm glycine, 0.1% (w/v) SDS).</li>
	<li>Stain the gel with Coomassie stain (see Table of Materials) for 1 h, followed by destaining using destaining buffer (50% (v/v) methanol, 10% (v/v) acetic acid in distilled water) for 2 h.</li>
	<li>Visualize the protein bands present in the gel using a gel imaging system (see Table of Materials). Rerun another SDS-PAGE gel with the same samples following the above-mentioned protocol.</li>
	<li>When the electrophoretic run ends, take SDS-PAGE gels to conduct western blot analysis as previously described19.</li>
	<li>Wash the nitrocellulose membrane onto which the proteins were transferred three times in wash buffer (TBS-Tween, pH 7.4 [50 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 1% (v/v) Tween]).</li>
	<li>Use &#945;-DnaK (see Table of Materials) to detect DnaK and &#945;-PfHsp70-17&#160;to detect KPf and its mutant, KPf-V436F), respectively.</li>
	<li>Use the antibodies at a 1:2000 dilution in 5% non-fat milk. Incubate at 4 &#176;C while shaking at 60 revolutions/min for 1 h.</li>
	<li>Remove non-specifically bound antibody by washing the nitrocellulose membrane in TBS-Tween 3 times in 15 min.</li>
	<li>Incubate the membrane in the secondary antibody (&#945;-rabbit, see Table of Materials) under the same conditions as the previous step. This is followed by subsequent washing under the same conditions as the primary antibody.</li>
	<li>Resolve the bands using enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) detection reagent.</li>
	<li>Visualize the bands using a gel imager.</li>
</ol>

Assessment of Hsp70 Chaperone Activity Using Escherichia coli dnaK756 Cells

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Immunol. 58 (1), 61-74 (2010).</li><li>Mogk, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+thermolabile+Escherichia+coli+proteins:+prevention+and+reversion+of+aggregation+by+DnaK+and+ClpB.">Identification of thermolabile Escherichia coli proteins: prevention and reversion of aggregation by DnaK and ClpB.</a> EMBO J. 18 (24), 6934-6949 (1999).</li><li>Edkins, A. L., Boshoff, A., Shonhai, A., Picard, D., Blatch, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=General+structural+and+functional+features+of+molecular+chaperones.+Heat+shock+proteins+of+malaria.">General structural and functional features of molecular chaperones. Heat shock proteins of malaria.</a> Adv Exp Med Biol. , (2021).</li><li>Bertelsen, E. B., Chang, L., Gestwicki, J. E., Zuiderweg, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Solution+conformation+of+wild-type+E.+coli.+Hsp70+(DnaK)+chaperone+complexed+with+ADP+and+substrate.">Solution conformation of wild-type E. coli. Hsp70 (DnaK) chaperone complexed with ADP and substrate.</a> PNAS. 106 (21), 8471-8476 (2009).</li><li>Shonhai, A., Boshoff, A., Blatch, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasmodium+falciparum+heat+shock+protein+70+is+able+to+suppress+the+thermosensitivity+of+an+Escherichia+coli+DnaK+mutant+strain.">Plasmodium falciparum heat shock protein 70 is able to suppress the thermosensitivity of an Escherichia coli DnaK mutant strain.</a> Mol Genet Genomics. 274, 70-78 (2005).</li><li>Shonhai, A., Botha, M., de Beer, T. A., Boshoff, A., Blatch, G. 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H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+a+chimeric+Hsp70+to+enhance+the+quality+of+recombinant+Plasmodium+falciparum+s-adenosylmethionine+decarboxylase+protein+produced+in+Escherichia+coli.">Use of a chimeric Hsp70 to enhance the quality of recombinant Plasmodium falciparum s-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase protein produced in Escherichia coli.</a> PLoS One. 11 (3), 0152626 (2016).</li><li>Bukau, B., Walker, G. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellular+defects+caused+by+deletion+of+the+Escherichia+coli+dnaK+gene+indicate+roles+for+heat+shock+protein+in+normal+metabolism.">Cellular defects caused by deletion of the Escherichia coli dnaK gene indicate roles for heat shock protein in normal metabolism.</a> J Bact. 171 (5), 2337-2346 (1989).</li><li>Makumire, S., Revaprasadu, N., Shonhai, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DnaK+protein+alleviates+toxicity+induced+by+citrate-coated+gold+nanoparticles+in+Escherichia+coli.">DnaK protein alleviates toxicity induced by citrate-coated gold nanoparticles in Escherichia coli.</a> PLoS One. 10 (4), 0121243 (2015).</li><li>Spence, J., Cegielska, A., Georgopoulos, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+Escherichia+coli+heat+shock+proteins+DnaK+and+HtpG+(C62.+5)+in+response+to+nutritional+deprivation.">Role of Escherichia coli heat shock proteins DnaK and HtpG (C62. 5) in response to nutritional deprivation.</a> J Bact. 172 (12), 7157-7166 (1990).</li><li>Mayer, M. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multistep+mechanism+of+substrate+binding+determines+chaperone+activity+of+Hsp70.">Multistep mechanism of substrate binding determines chaperone activity of Hsp70.</a> Nat Struct Biol. 7 (7), 586-593 (2000).</li><li>Georgopoulos, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+bacterial+gene+(groP+C)+which+affects+&#955;+DNA+replication.">A new bacterial gene (groP C) which affects &#955; DNA replication.</a> Mol Genet Genomics. 151 (1), 35-39 (1977).</li><li>Tilly, K., McKittrick, N., Zylicz, M., Georgopoulos, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dnaK+protein+modulates+the+heat-shock+response+of+Escherichia+coli.">The dnaK protein modulates the heat-shock response of Escherichia coli.</a> Cell. 34 (2), 641-646 (1983).</li><li>Buchberger, A., Gassler, C. S., Buttner, M., McMacken, R., Bukau, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+defects+of+the+DnaK756+mutant+chaperone+of+Escherichia+coli+indicate+distinct+roles+for+amino-and+carboxyl-terminal+residues+in+substrate+and+co-chaperone+interaction+and+interdomain+communication.">Functional defects of the DnaK756 mutant chaperone of Escherichia coli indicate distinct roles for amino-and carboxyl-terminal residues in substrate and co-chaperone interaction and interdomain communication.</a> J Biol Chem. 274 (53), 38017-38026 (1999).</li><li>Taj, M. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Escherichia+coli+as+a+model+organism.">Escherichia coli as a model organism.</a> Int J Eng Res. 3 (2), 1-8 (2014).</li><li>Sato, S., Wilson, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organelle-specific+cochaperonins+in+apicomplexan+parasites.">Organelle-specific cochaperonins in apicomplexan parasites.</a> Mol Biochem Parasitol. 141 (2), 133-143 (2005).</li><li>Molecular characterisation of the chaperone properties of Plasmodium falciparum. heat shock protein 70. Rhodes University Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://commons.ru.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Repository/vital:3977?site_name=Rhodes+University">https://commons.ru.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Repository/vital:3977?site_name=Rhodes+University</a> (2007)</li><li>Makumire, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutation+of+GGMP+repeat+segments+of+Plasmodium+falciparum+Hsp70-1+compromises+chaperone+function+and+Hop+co-chaperone+binding.">Mutation of GGMP repeat segments of Plasmodium falciparum Hsp70-1 compromises chaperone function and Hop co-chaperone binding.</a> Int J Mol Sci. 22 (4), 2226 (2021).</li><li>Nitika, P. C. M., Truman, A. W., Truttmann, M. 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The authors have no competing financial interests or other conflicts of interest.

The protocol demonstrates the utility of E. coli dnaK756cells in exploring the chaperone function of heterologously expressed Hsp70. This assay could be adopted to screen inhibitors targeting Hsp70 function in cellulo. However, one limitation of this method is that Hsp70s unable to substitute for DnaK in E. coli are not compatible with this assay. Lack of post-translational modification21&#160;of some non-native Hsp70s may account for their lack of function within the <e...

Heat shock proteins play an important role as molecular chaperones by facilitating protein folding, preventing protein aggregation, and reversing protein misfolding1,2. Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is one of the most prominent molecular chaperones, playing a central role in protein homeostasis3,4. DnaK is the E. coli Hsp70 homologue5.
Various biophysical, biochemical, and cell-based assays have been developed to explore the chaperone activity of Hsp70 and to screen for inhibitors targeting this chaperone6,7,8. Hsp70 is a highly conserved protein. For this reason, several Hsp70s of eukaryotic organisms, such as Plasmodium falciparum (the main agent of malaria), have been reported to substitute for DnaK function in E. coli6,9. In this way, an E. coli-based complementation assay has been developed involving the heterologous expression of Hsp70s in E. coli to explore their cytoprotective function. Typically, this assay involves the utilization of E. coli cells that are either deficient for DnaK or that express a native DnaK that is functionally compromised. While DnaK is not essential for E. coli growth under normal conditions, it becomes essential when the cells are grown under stressful conditions such as elevated temperatures or other forms of stress10,11.
E. coli strains that have been developed to study Hsp70 function using a complementation assay include E. coli dnaK103&#160;(BB2393 [C600 dnaK103(Am) thr::Tn10]) and E. coli dnaK756. E. coli dnaK103&#160;cells produce a truncated DnaK that is non-functional, and as such, the cells grow adequately at 30 &#176;C, while the strain is sensitive to cold and heat stress12,13. Similarly, the E. coli dnaK756/BB2362 (dnaK756&#160;recA::TcR Pdm1,1) strain does not grow above 40 &#176;C14,15. The E. coli dnaK756&#160;strain expresses a mutant native DnaK (DnaK756) characterized by three glycine-to-aspartate substitutions at positions 32, 455, and 468, giving rise to compromised proteostatic outcomes. Consequently, this strain is resistant to bacteriophage &#955; DNA14. Additionally, E. coli&#160;dnaK756 exhibits elevated ATPase activity, while its affinity for the nucleotide exchange factor, GrpE, is reduced16. E. coli DnaK mutant strains serve as ideal models for investigating the chaperone activity of Hsp70 through a complementation approach. Since DnaK is only essential under stressful conditions, the complementation assay is typically conducted at elevated temperatures (Figure 1). Some advantages of using E. coli for this study include its well-characterized genome, rapid growth, and the low cost of culturing and maintenance17.
In this article, we describe in detail a protocol involving the use of E. coli dnaK756&#160;cells to study the function of Hsp70. The Hsp70s we employed in the assay are wild-type DnaK and its chimeric derivative, KPf (made up of the ATPase domain of DnaK fused to the C-terminal substrate-binding domain of Plasmodium falciparum Hsp70-16,18). KPf-V436F was heterologously expressed as a negative control since the mutation essentially blocks it from binding substrates, thus abrogating its chaperone activity9.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2-&#946;-Mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>8,05,740</td>
			<td>Constituent for sample loading dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic acid</td>
			<td>Labchem</td>
			<td>101005125</td>
			<td>Constituent of destainer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylamide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>8008300100</td>
			<td>Component of SDS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>HG000BX1.500</td>
			<td>Constituent of medium and liquid growth assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Clever Scientific</td>
			<td>14131031</td>
			<td>Certified molecular biology agarose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium persulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>101875295</td>
			<td>Constituent for SDS-PAGE gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>0339&#8212;EU&#8212;25G</td>
			<td>Selective antibiotic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bis</td>
			<td>Sigma-aldrich</td>
			<td>1015460100</td>
			<td>Component of SDS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bromophenol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>0449-25G</td>
			<td>Constituent for sample loading dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>10043-52-4</td>
			<td>For competent cells preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie brilliant blue</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>443293X</td>
			<td>SDS-PAGE dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dibasic sodium phosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>RB10368</td>
			<td>Constituent of PBS buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECL</td>
			<td>Thermofischer Scientific</td>
			<td>32109</td>
			<td>Western blot detection reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethidium Bromide</td>
			<td>Thermofischer Scientific</td>
			<td>17898</td>
			<td>DNA intercalating dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>SAAR2676520L</td>
			<td>Constituent for sample loading dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>10119CU</td>
			<td>Component of SDS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IPTG</td>
			<td>Glentham life sciences</td>
			<td>162IL</td>
			<td>inducer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin</td>
			<td>Melford</td>
			<td>K0126</td>
			<td>Selective antibiotic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>SAAR4123000EM</td>
			<td>Constituent of medium and liquid growth assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Labchem</td>
			<td>113140129</td>
			<td>Constituent of destainer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monobasic potassium phosphate</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1,04,87,30,250</td>
			<td>Constituent of PBS buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peptone</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>HG000BX4.250</td>
			<td>Constituent of medium and liquid growth assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>SAAR5042020EM</td>
			<td>Constituent of PBS buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVDF membrane</td>
			<td>Thermofischer scientific</td>
			<td>PB7320</td>
			<td>Western blot membrane</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>SAAR5822320EM</td>
			<td>Constituent of medium and liquid growth assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulphate</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>108073</td>
			<td>To resolve expressed proteins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectramax iD3</td>
			<td>Separations</td>
			<td>373705019</td>
			<td>Automated plate reader</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TEMED</td>
			<td>VWR international</td>
			<td>ACRO420580500</td>
			<td>Component of SDS gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetracycline</td>
			<td>Duchefa Biochemies</td>
			<td>T0150.0025</td>
			<td>Selective antibiotic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>19A094101</td>
			<td>Component of SDS gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween20</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>SAAR3164500XF</td>
			<td>Constituent for Western wash buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Western transfer chamber</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>PB0112</td>
			<td>Transfer of protein to nitrocellulose membrane</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>HG000BX6.500</td>
			<td>Constituent of medium and liquid growth assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#945;-DnaK antibody</td>
			<td>Inqaba</td>
			<td>BK CAC09317</td>
			<td>Primary antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#945;-rabbit antibody</td>
			<td>Thermofischer scientific</td>
			<td>31460</td>
			<td>Secondary antibody</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

escherichia coli -based complementation assay to study the chaperone function of heat shock protein 70

Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is a conserved protein that facilitates the folding of other proteins within the cell, making it a molecular chaperone. While Hsp70 is not essential for E. coli cells growing under normal conditions, this chaperone becomes indispensable for growth at elevated temperatures. Since Hsp70 is highly conserved, one way to study the chaperone function of Hsp70&#160;genes from various species is to heterologously express them in E. coli strains that are either deficient in Hsp70 or express a native Hsp70 that is functionally compromised. E. coli dnaK756&#160;cells are unable to support &#955; bacteriophage DNA. Furthermore, their native Hsp70 (DnaK) exhibits elevated ATPase activity while demonstrating reduced affinity for GrpE (Hsp70 nucleotide exchange factor). As a result, E. coli dnaK756&#160;cells grow adequately at temperatures ranging from 30 &#176;C to 37 &#176;C, but they die at elevated temperatures (&#62;40 &#176;C). For this reason, these cells serve as a model for studying the chaperone activity of Hsp70. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for the application of these cells to conduct a complementation assay, enabling the study of the in cellulo chaperone function of Hsp70.

Figure 2&#160;presents an image of the scanned agar containing cells that were spotted and cultured at the permissive growth temperature of 37 &#176;C and 43.5 &#176;C, respectively. On the right-hand side of Figure 2, excised western blot components represent the expression of DnaK, KPf, and KPf-V436F in E. coli dnaK756&#160;cells. As expected, all the E. coli dnaK756&#160;cells cultured at the permissive growth temperature of 37 &#176;C manag...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Author Spotlight: Exploring Heat Shock Proteins in Malaria and Tuberculosis Infections at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Exploring Heat Shock Proteins in Malaria and Tuberculosis Infections

This protocol demonstrates the chaperone activity of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70). E. coli dnaK756 cells serve as a model for the assay as they harbor a native, functionally impaired Hsp70, making them susceptible to heat stress. The heterologous introduction of functional Hsp70 rescues the growth deficiency of the cells.

Escherichia coli -Based Complementation Assay to Study the Chaperone Function of Heat Shock Protein 70

Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is a conserved protein that facilitates the folding of other proteins within the cell, making it a molecular chaperone. ...

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Biochemistry

1.1K Views.  University of Venda. This protocol demonstrates the chaperone activity of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70). E. coli dnaK756 cells serve as a model for the assay as they harbor a native, functionally impaired Hsp70, making them susceptible to heat stress. The heterologous introduction of functional Hsp70 rescues the growth deficiency of the cells.

Video: Author Spotlight: Exploring Heat Shock Proteins in Malaria and Tuberculosis Infections

Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification

An increasing interest in applying synthetic biology techniques to program outer membrane vesicles (OMV) are leading to some very interesting and unique applications for OMV where traditional nanoparticles are proving too difficult to synthesize. To date, all Gram-negative bacteria have been shown to produce OMV demonstrating packaging of a variety of cargo that includes small molecules, peptides, proteins and genetic material. Based on their diverse cargo, OMV are implicated in many biological processes ranging from cell-cell communication to gene transfer and delivery of virulence factors depending upon which bacteria are producing the OMV. Only recently have bacterial OMV become accessible for use across a wide range of applications through the development of techniques to control and direct packaging of recombinant proteins into OMV. This protocol describes a method for the production, purification, and use of enzyme packaged OMV providing for improved overall production of recombinant enzyme, increased vesiculation, and enhanced enzyme stability. Successful utilization of this protocol will result in the creation of a bacterial strain that simultaneously produces a recombinant protein and directs it for OMV encapsulation through creating a synthetic linkage between the recombinant protein and an outer membrane anchor protein. This protocol also details methods for isolating OMV from bacterial cultures as well as proper handling techniques and things to consider when adapting this protocol for use for other unique applications such as: pharmaceutical drug delivery, medical diagnostics, and environmental remediation.

Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification

A protocol for the production, purification, and use of enzyme packaged outer membrane vesicles (OMV) providing for enhanced enzyme stability for implementation across diverse applications is presented.

An increasing interest in applying synthetic biology techniques to program outer membrane vesicles (OMV) are leading to some very interesting and unique ...

Detection of the pH-dependent Activity of Escherichia coli Chaperone HdeB In Vitro and In Vivo

Bacteria are frequently exposed to environmental changes, such as alterations in pH, temperature, redox status, light exposure or mechanical force. Many of these conditions cause protein unfolding in the cell and have detrimental impact on the survival of the organism. A group of unrelated, stress-specific molecular chaperones have been shown to play essential roles in the survival of these stress conditions. While fully folded and chaperone-inactive before stress, these proteins rapidly unfold and become chaperone-active under specific stress conditions. Once activated, these conditionally disordered chaperones bind to a large number of different aggregation-prone proteins, prevent their aggregation and either directly or indirectly facilitate protein refolding upon return to non-stress conditions. The primary approach for gaining a more detailed understanding about the mechanism of their activation and client recognition involves the purification and subsequent characterization of these proteins using in vitro chaperone assays. Follow-up in vivo stress assays are absolutely essential to independently confirm the obtained in vitro results.
This protocol describes in vitro and in vivo methods to characterize the chaperone activity of E. coli HdeB, an acid-activated chaperone. Light scattering measurements were used as a convenient read-out for HdeB&#39;s capacity to prevent acid-induced aggregation of an established model client protein, MDH, in vitro. Analytical ultracentrifugation experiments were applied to reveal complex formation between HdeB and its client protein LDH, to shed light into the fate of client proteins upon their return to non-stress conditions. Enzymatic activity assays of the client proteins were conducted to monitor the effects of HdeB on pH-induced client inactivation and reactivation. Finally, survival studies were used to monitor the influence of HdeB&#39;s chaperone function in vivo.

Detection of the pH-dependent Activity of Escherichia coli Chaperone HdeB In Vitro and In Vivo

This study describes biophysical, biochemical and molecular techniques to characterize the chaperone activity of Escherichia coli HdeB under acidic pH conditions. These methods have been successfully applied for other acid-protective chaperones such as HdeA and can be modified to work for other chaperones and stress conditions.

Bacteria are frequently exposed to environmental changes, such as alterations in pH, temperature, redox status, light exposure or mechanical force. Many ...

Fluorescence Anisotropy as a Tool to Study Protein-protein Interactions

Protein-protein interactions play an essential role in the function of a living organism. Once an interaction has been identified and validated it is necessary to characterize it at the structural and mechanistic level. Several biochemical and biophysical methods exist for such purpose. Among them, fluorescence anisotropy is a powerful technique particularly used when the fluorescence intensity of a fluorophore-labeled protein remains constant upon protein-protein interaction. In this technique, a fluorophore-labeled protein is excited with vertically polarized light of an appropriate wavelength that selectively excites a subset of the fluorophores according to their relative orientation with the incoming beam. The resulting emission also has a directionality whose relationship in the vertical and horizontal planes defines anisotropy (r) as follows: r=(IVV-IVH)/(IVV+2IVH), where IVV and IVH are the fluorescence intensities of the vertical and horizontal components, respectively. Fluorescence anisotropy is sensitive to the rotational diffusion of a fluorophore, namely the apparent molecular size of a fluorophore attached to a protein, which is altered upon protein-protein interaction. In the present text, the use of fluorescence anisotropy as a tool to study protein-protein interactions was exemplified to address the binding between the protein mutated in the Shwachman-Diamond Syndrome (SBDS) and the Elongation factor like-1 GTPase (EFL1). Conventionally, labeling of a protein with a fluorophore is carried out on the thiol groups (cysteine) or in the amino groups (the N-terminal amine or lysine) of the protein. However, SBDS possesses several cysteines and lysines that did not allow site directed labeling of it. As an alternative technique, the dye 4&#39;,5&#39;-bis(1,3,2 dithioarsolan-2-yl) fluorescein was used to specifically label a tetracysteine motif, Cys-Cys-Pro-Gly-Cys-Cys, genetically engineered in the C-terminus of the recombinant SBDS protein. Fitting of the experimental data provided quantitative and mechanistic information on the binding mode between these proteins.

Protein interactions are at the heart of a cell&#39;s function. Calorimetric and spectroscopic techniques are commonly used to characterize them. Here we describe fluorescence anisotropy as a tool to study the interaction between the protein mutated in the Shwachman-Diamond Syndrome (SBDS) and the Elongation factor-like 1 GTPase (EFL1).

Protein-protein interactions play an essential role in the function of a living organism. Once an interaction has been identified and validated it is ...

Protein-tRNA Agarose Gel Retardation Assays for the Analysis of the N6-threonylcarbamoyladenosine TcdA Function

We demonstrate methods for the expression and purification of tRNA(UUU) in Escherichia coli and the analysis by gel retardation assays of the binding of tRNA(UUU) to TcdA, an N6-threonylcarbamoyladenosine (t6A) dehydratase, which cyclizes the threonylcarbamoyl side chain attached to A37 in the anticodon stem loop (ASL) of tRNAs to cyclic t6A (ct6A). Transcription of the synthetic gene encoding tRNA(UUU) is induced in E. coli with 1 mM isopropyl &#946;-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) and the cells containing tRNA are harvested 24 h post-induction. The RNA fraction is purified using the acid phenol extraction method. Pure tRNA is obtained by a gel filtration chromatography that efficiently separates the small-sized tRNA molecules from larger intact or fragmented nucleic acids. To analyze TcdA binding to tRNA(UUU), TcdA is mixed with tRNA(UUU) and separated on a native agarose gel at 4 &#176;C. The free tRNA(UUU) migrates faster, while the TcdA-tRNA(UUU) complexes undergo a mobility retardation that can be observed upon staining of the gel. We demonstrate that TcdA is a tRNA(UUU)-binding enzyme. This gel retardation assay can be used to study TcdA mutants and the effects of additives and other proteins on binding.

Protein-tRNA Agarose Gel Retardation Assays for the Analysis of the N6-threonylcarbamoyladenosine TcdA Function

A protocol is presented for the production of tRNA(UUU) and the analysis of tRNA(UUU) in complex with the enzyme TcdA by agarose gel retardation assays.

We demonstrate methods for the expression and purification of tRNA(UUU) in Escherichia coli and the analysis by gel retardation assays of the binding of ...

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. The relative levels of different tRNAs, and the ratio of aminoacylated tRNA to total tRNA, known as the charging level, are important factors in determining the accuracy and speed of translation. Therefore, the abundance and charging levels of tRNAs are important variables to measure when studying protein synthesis, for example under various stress conditions. Here, we describe a method for harvesting tRNA and directly measuring both the relative abundance and the absolute charging level of specific tRNA species in Escherichia coli. The tRNA is harvested in such a way that the labile bond between the tRNA and its amino acid is preserved. The RNA is then subjected to gel electrophoresis and Northern blotting, which results in separation of the charged and uncharged tRNAs. The levels of specific tRNAs in different samples can be compared due to the addition of spike-in cells for normalization. Prior to RNA purification, we add 5% of E. coli cells that overproduce the rare tRNAselC to each sample. The amount of the tRNA species of interest in a sample is then normalized to the amount of tRNAselC in the same sample. Addition of spike-in cells prior to RNA purification has the advantage over addition of purified spike-in RNAs that it also accounts for any differences in cell lysis efficiency between samples.

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Here we present a method for directly measuring transfer RNA charging levels from purified Escherichia coli RNA as well as a way to compare relative levels of transfer RNA, or any other short RNA, across different samples based on the addition of spike-in cells expressing a reference gene.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. ...

Biotinylated Cell-penetrating Peptides to Study Intracellular Protein-protein Interactions

Here we present a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions that is based on the widely used biotin-avidin pull-down system. The modification presented includes the combination of this technique with cell-penetrating sequences. We propose to design cell-penetrating baits that can be incubated with living cells instead of cell lysates and therefore the interactions found will reflect those that occur within the intracellular context. Connexin43 (Cx43), a protein that forms gap junction channels and hemichannels is down-regulated in high-grade gliomas. The Cx43 region comprising amino acids 266-283 is responsible for the inhibition of the oncogenic activity of c-Src in glioma cells. Here we use TAT as the cell-penetrating sequence, biotin as the pull-down tag and the region of Cx43 comprised between amino acids 266-283 as the target to find intracellular interactions in the hard-to-transfect human glioma stem cells. One of the limitations of the proposed method is that the molecule used as bait could fail to fold properly and, consequently, the interactions found could not be associated with the effect. However, this method can be especially interesting for the interactions involved in signal transduction pathways because they are usually carried out by intrinsically disordered regions and, therefore, they do not require an ordered folding. In addition, one of the advantages of the proposed method is that the relevance of each residue on the interaction can be easily studied. This is a modular system; therefore, other cell-penetrating sequences, other tags, and other intracellular targets can be employed. Finally, the scope of this protocol is far beyond protein-protein interaction because this system can be applied to other bioactive cargoes such as RNA sequences, nanoparticles, viruses or any molecule that can be transduced with cell-penetrating sequences and fused to pull-down tags to study their intracellular mechanism of action.

This is a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions based on the biotin-avidin pull-down system with the novelty of combining cell-penetrating sequences. The main advantage is that the target sequence is incubated with living cells instead of cell lysates and therefore the interactions will occur within the cellular context.

Here we present a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions that is based on the widely used biotin-avidin pull-down system. The ...

Using Three-color Single-molecule FRET to Study the Correlation of Protein Interactions

Single-molecule F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) has become a widely used biophysical technique to study the dynamics of biomolecules. For many molecular machines in a cell proteins have to act together&#160;with interaction partners in a functional cycle to fulfill their task. The extension of two-color to multi-color smFRET makes it possible to simultaneously probe more than one interaction or conformational change. This not only adds a new dimension to smFRET experiments but it also offers the unique possibility to directly study the sequence of events and to detect correlated interactions when using an immobilized sample and a total internal reflection fluorescence microscope (TIRFM). Therefore, multi-color smFRET is a versatile tool for studying biomolecular complexes in a quantitative manner and in a previously unachievable detail.
Here, we demonstrate how to overcome the special challenges of multi-color smFRET experiments on proteins. We present detailed protocols for obtaining the data and for extracting kinetic information. This includes trace selection criteria, state separation, and the recovery of state trajectories from the noisy data using a 3D ensemble Hidden Markov Model (HMM). Compared to other methods, the kinetic information is not recovered from dwell time histograms but directly from the HMM. The maximum likelihood framework allows us to critically evaluate the kinetic model and to provide meaningful uncertainties for the rates.
By applying our method to the heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90), we are able to disentangle the nucleotide binding and the global conformational changes of the protein. This allows us to directly observe the cooperativity between the two nucleotide binding pockets of the Hsp90 dimer.

Here, we present a protocol to obtain three-color smFRET data and its analysis with a 3D ensemble Hidden Markov Model. With this approach, scientists can extract kinetic information from complex protein systems, including cooperativity or correlated interactions.

Single-molecule F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) has become a widely used biophysical technique to study the dynamics of biomolecules. For ...

Lighting Up the Pathways to Caspase Activation Using Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation

The caspase family of proteases play essential roles in apoptosis and innate immunity. Among these, a subgroup known as initiator caspases are the first to be activated in these pathways. This group includes caspase-2, -8, and -9, as well as the inflammatory caspases, caspase-1, -4, and -5. The initiator caspases are all activated by dimerization following recruitment to specific multiprotein complexes called activation platforms. Caspase Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) is an imaging-based approach where split fluorescent proteins fused to initiator caspases are used to visualize the recruitment of initiator caspases to their activation platforms and the resulting induced proximity. This fluorescence provides a readout of one of the earliest steps required for initiator caspase activation. Using a number of different microscopy-based approaches, this technique can provide quantitative data on the efficiency of caspase activation on a population level as well as the kinetics of caspase activation and the size and number of caspase activating complexes on a per cell basis.

This protocol describes caspase Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC); an imaging-based method that can be used to visualize induced proximity of initiator caspases, which is the first step in their activation.

The caspase family of proteases play essential roles in apoptosis and innate immunity. Among these, a subgroup known as initiator caspases are the first ...

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

With increasing interest in RNA biology and the use of RNA molecules in sophisticated biotechnological applications, the methods to produce large amounts of recombinant RNAs are limited. Here, we describe a protocol to produce large amounts of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli based on co-expression of a chimeric molecule that contains the RNA of interest in a viroid scaffold and a plant tRNA ligase. Viroids are relatively small, non-coding, highly base-paired circular RNAs that are infectious to higher plants. The host plant tRNA ligase is an enzyme recruited by viroids that belong to the family Avsunviroidae, such as Eggplant latent viroid (ELVd), to mediate RNA circularization during viroid replication. Although ELVd does not replicate in E. coli, an ELVd precursor is efficiently transcribed by the E. coli RNA polymerase and processed by the embedded hammerhead ribozymes in bacterial cells, and the resulting monomers are circularized by the co-expressed tRNA ligase reaching a remarkable concentration. The insertion of an RNA of interest into the ELVd scaffold enables the production of tens of milligrams of the recombinant RNA per liter of bacterial culture in regular laboratory conditions. A main fraction of the RNA product is circular, a feature that facilitates the purification of the recombinant RNA to virtual homogeneity. In this protocol, a complementary DNA (cDNA) corresponding to the RNA of interest is inserted in a particular position of the ELVd cDNA in an expression plasmid that is used, along the plasmid to co-express eggplant tRNA ligase, to transform E. coli. Co-expression of both molecules under the control of strong constitutive promoters leads to production of large amounts of the recombinant RNA. The recombinant RNA can be extracted from the bacterial cells and separated from the bulk of bacterial RNAs taking advantage of its circularity.

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

Here, we present a protocol to produce large amounts of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli by co-expressing a chimeric RNA that contains the RNA of interest in a viroid scaffold and a plant tRNA ligase. The main product is a circular molecule that facilitates purification to homogeneity.

With increasing interest in RNA biology and the use of RNA molecules in sophisticated biotechnological applications, the methods to produce large amounts ...

Site Specific Lysine Acetylation of Histones for Nucleosome Reconstitution using Genetic Code Expansion in Escherichia coli

Acetylated histone proteins can be easily expressed in Escherichia coli encoding a mutant, N&#949;-acetyl-lysine (AcK)-specific Methanosarcina mazi pyrrolysine tRNA-synthetase (MmAcKRS1) and its cognate tRNA (tRNAPyl) to assemble reconstituted mononucleosomes with site specific acetylated histones. MmAcKRS1 and tRNAPyl deliver AcK at an amber mutation site in the mRNA of choice during translation in Escherichia coli. This technique has been used extensively to incorporate AcK at H3 lysine sites. Pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase (PylRS) can also be easily evolved to incorporate other noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs) for site specific protein modification or functionalization. Here we detail a method to incorporate AcK using the MmAcKRS1 system into histone H3 and integrate acetylated H3 proteins into reconstituted mononucleosomes. Acetylated reconstituted mononucleosomes can be used in biochemical and binding assays, structure determination, and more. Obtaining modified mononucleosomes is crucial for designing experiments related to discovering new interactions and understanding epigenetics.

Site Specific Lysine Acetylation of Histones for Nucleosome Reconstitution using Genetic Code Expansion in Escherichia coli

Here we present a method to express acetylated histone proteins using genetic code expansion and assemble reconstituted nucleosomes in vitro.

Acetylated histone proteins can be easily expressed in Escherichia coli encoding a mutant, N&#949;-acetyl-lysine (AcK)-specific Methanosarcina mazi ...

Escherichia coli -Based Complementation Assay to Study the Chaperone Function of Heat Shock Protein 70

Summary

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Chapters in this video

Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification

Detection of the pH-dependent Activity of Escherichia coli Chaperone HdeB In Vitro and In Vivo

Fluorescence Anisotropy as a Tool to Study Protein-protein Interactions

Protein-tRNA Agarose Gel Retardation Assays for the Analysis of the N⁶-threonylcarbamoyladenosine TcdA Function

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Biotinylated Cell-penetrating Peptides to Study Intracellular Protein-protein Interactions

Using Three-color Single-molecule FRET to Study the Correlation of Protein Interactions

Lighting Up the Pathways to Caspase Activation Using Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

Site Specific Lysine Acetylation of Histones for Nucleosome Reconstitution using Genetic Code Expansion in Escherichia coli