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Laminopathy disorders often lead to changes in the nuclear envelope, which may cause nuclear blebbing and leakage. This study presents an immunofluorescence method to visualize the nuclear lamina along with double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), providing a means to assess nuclear structure and integrity in mammalian cells.
The nuclear lamina is a network of filaments underlying the nuclear membrane, composed of lamins and lamin-associated proteins. It plays critical roles in nuclear architecture, nuclear pore positioning, gene expression regulation, chromatin organization, DNA replication, and DNA repair. Mutations in genes involved in the expression or post-translational processing of lamin proteins result in genetic disorders known as laminopathies. Specifically, mutations in the LMNA or ZMPSTE24 genes can lead to the accumulation of incompletely processed forms of lamin A that retain farnesyl and methyl groups, which are absent in fully processed lamin A. These incompletely processed lamin A proteins localize to the inner nuclear membrane instead of the nuclear lamina, where mature lamin A resides. Mislocalized lamin proteins profoundly disrupt nuclear function and structure, often resulting in nuclear blebbing. In severe cases, nuclear rupture can occur, causing a loss of compartmentalization and leakage of genomic DNA into the cytosol. Abnormal nuclear structure and compartmentalization loss can be identified through indirect immunofluorescence (IF) on fixed cells. This study outlines such a method, employing specific antibodies against a lamin protein and double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) to simultaneously visualize the nuclear envelope and DNA. This approach enables a rapid assessment of nuclear structural integrity and the potential leakage of nuclear DNA into the cytosol.
The nuclear lamina is a network of filaments that underlies the nuclear membrane and is made up of proteins called lamins. The nuclear lamina plays essential roles in nuclear architecture, positioning of nuclear pores, gene expression regulation, chromatin organization, DNA replication, and DNA repair1,2,3. Mutations in genes that play a role in the expression of the lamin proteins lead to genetic disorders called laminopathies3.
Restrictive dermopathy (RD) is a severe laminopathy disorder predominantly caused by compound heterozygous mutations that create premature termination codons in the ZMPSTE24 gene4, leading to an absence of the metalloprotease ZMPSTE24. This laminopathy is characterized by intrauterine growth retardation, tight, rigid skin, small-sized mouth, thin hair, and bone mineralization defects1. RD patients usually do not live past their first week of life due to pulmonary insufficiency1. Two other laminopathy disorders known as atypical Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome (AT-HGPS) and Mandibuloacral dysplasia type B (MAD-B) involve reduced ZMPSTE24 expression and are associated with reduced lifespan and show similarities to premature aging disorders5. The ZMPSTE24 protease that is impacted in these laminopathies is vital in the post-translational modification of lamin A, which is a critical component of the nuclear lamina. ZMPSTE24 deficiency results in the accumulation of an incompletely processed farnesylated form of lamin A, known as prelamin A2.
Figure 1: Lamin A processing in normal vs. RD cells. Lamin A processing pathway in normal cells (left) and altered lamin A processing in RD, or ZMPSTE deficient cells (right). Farnesyl (Fa) and methyl (Me) groups are indicated. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
As seen in Figure 1, in normal lamin A processing, a farnesyl (lipid) group is attached to a cysteine residue near the C-terminus, followed by proteolytic cleavage of three C-terminal amino acids3,6. The cysteine residue is then methylated. These two modifications allow prelamin A to be targeted to the inner nuclear membrane2. ZMPSTE24 then carries out a cleavage reaction whereby the last 15 C-terminal amino acids, along with the farnesyl and methyl groups, are removed to produce mature Lamin A protein, which is delivered to the nuclear lamina6,7,8. In RD, AT-HGPS, and MAD-B, the final step of processing does not occur effectively since the ZMPSTE24 metalloproteinase is lacking or not fully functional8,9. This results in the accumulation of prelamin A, which remains permanently farnesylated and methylated9. These latter groups cause the prelamin A to stick to the inner nuclear membrane instead of localizing to the nuclear lamina, where mature lamin A should ultimately reside, as seen in Figure 1. Thus, ZMPSTE deficiency has profound effects on a variety of nuclear functions, along with nuclear structure10,11,12,13,14,15. These alterations to nuclear structure may include nuclear blebbing and even nuclear rupturing which can result in the leakage of DNA into the cytosol as well as ingress of cytosol into the nucleus. Aberrantly shaped nuclei are indeed a hallmark of laminopathy disorders, along with numerous other phenotypes that are caused by defective prelamin A processing16,17. Defects in the nuclear lamina lead to a multitude of detrimental impacts, including the mislocalization of nuclear protein quality control and DNA repair proteins in the nucleoplasm, which, in turn, results in numerous defects in nuclear function18. It is important to have a simple technique that can help to identify and monitor these hallmarks of laminopathies to facilitate research into the development of therapeutic approaches aimed at ameliorating laminopathy phenotypes. For mice with laminopathies, it has been shown that the elimination of nuclear blebbing correlates with the generalized elimination of laminopathy phenotypes16. A technique that allows monitoring of nuclear integrity in human cells could enhance the study of potential treatments for eliminating or significantly improving disease phenotypes.
Indirect immunofluorescence (IF) is a sensitive and widely used technique that uses both a primary unlabeled antibody and a fluorophore-labeled secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody to detect a target of interest19. IF methods can provide a powerful means for visualizing specific intracellular components and structures. It is also possible that more than one secondary antibody molecule may interact with the primary antibody, resulting in amplification of the signal19. Indirect IF is a versatile technique that also allows the detection of multiple primary antibodies with a relatively small set of secondary antibodies since secondary antibodies are raised against the Fc domain of the primary antibody, which is conserved within species19.
This article describes an indirectΒ (IF) method to assess nuclear blebbing and DNA leakage in cells deficient in ZMPSTE24, using antibodies against double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and lamin B1 to detect DNA and the nuclear lamina, respectively. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, the procedure was applied to a HeLa cell line with knocked-out ZMPSTE24 expression, as well as a HeLa cell line that expresses ZMPSTE24, and the outcomes for the two cell lines were compared.
Details of the reagents and the equipment used are listed in the Table of Materials.
1. Preparation of materials
2. Preparation of the solutions
3. Growing the desired cells
NOTE: HeLa cells were grown in this protocol to confluency within a T75 flask.
4. Cell fixation and permeabilization
5. Immunofluorescence staining
Antibody | Source | Company | Reference | ||
dsDNA Marker Antibody (HYB331-01) | Mouse monoclonal | Santa Cruz | sc-58749 | ||
Goat anti-Mouse IgG (H+L) Highly Cross-Adsorbed Secondary Antibody, Alexa Fluor Plus 488 | Goat | ThermoFisherΒ | A32723 | ||
Goat anti-Mouse IgG (H+L) Highly Cross-Adsorbed Secondary Antibody, Alexa Fluor Plus 405 | Goat | Invitrogen | A31553 | ||
Lamin B1 Polyclonal Antibody | Rabbit | Proteintech | 12987-1-AP | ||
Goat anti-Rabbit IgG (H+L) Highly Cross-Adsorbed Secondary Antibody, Alexa Fluor 594 | Goat | Invitrogen | A11037 |
Table 1: Antibodies. List of all antibodies used in this protocol.
6. Image acquisition
7. Data analysis
This study introduces an IF method for visualizing the nuclear lamina in conjunction with double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). Once IF is performed, the images captured can be examined for signs of nuclear blebbing and DNA leakage.
Figure 2: Nuclear blebbing in HeLa CT and ZMPSTE24<...
The protocol presented contains several critical steps, the most important being the treatment of the fixed cells with primary and secondary antibodies. Ensuring the use of a good quality primary antibody against the target of interest with a correct corresponding secondary antibody with fluorophores within the range of the microscope used will yield optimal results19. The quality of the antibody can greatly impact the results of this technique, as faulty antibodies can interact with nonspecific t...
The authors have nothing to disclose.
This work was supported by the National Institute on Aging grant R03AG064525 to ASW. We would like to thank Dr. Jason A. Stewart for help in technique mentorship and the Hui Chen laboratory for providing the microscope used. We would also like to thank Fabio Martinon for the HeLa cell lines used in these experiments.
Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
22 mm Square Glass Coverslips | Propper Manufacturing Company | M8710 | Any size or shape can be used as long as they can be fixed to a standard microscope slide.Β |
36.5% Formaldehyde | Sigma Aldrich | F8775 | Fixation Reagent.Β |
75 cm 2 Flasks | Corning | 430725U | For cell culture.Β |
Bovine Serum Albinum (BSA) | Fisher Scientific | 9048-46-8 | Antibody dilution buffer.Β |
DMEM with 1 g/L glucose, L-glutamine & sodium pyruvate | Corning | 10-014-CV | For cell culture.Β |
Ethanol (200 Proof) | Decon Laboratories | 2701 | For dehydration of samples before mounting, diluted to make multiple concentrations.Β |
EVOS FL Digital Inverted Fluorescence Microscope | Fisher Scientific | 12-563-460 | Imaging.Β |
Fish Gelatin | Sigma Aldrich | G7041 | Antibody dilution buffer.Β |
Fluoromount-G | Southern Biotech | 0100-01 | Mounting medium to prevent photobleaching.Β |
Parafilm (4 in) | Fisher Scientific | 13-374-12 | Any size can be substituted, as long as the coverslips being used can fit.Β |
Penicillin-Streptomycin | Gibco | 15-140-122 | For cell culture.Β |
Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) | N/A | N/A | Made and sterilized in the lab for tissue culture and solutions. |
Premium Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) | Atlanta Biologicals | S11150 | For cell culture.Β |
Superfrost Premium Microscope Slides | Fisher Scientific | 12-544-7 | Any standard microscope slides can be used.Β |
Tissue Culture Treated 6-well Flat Bottom Plates | Falcon | 353046 | For cell culture.Β |
TritonX-100 | Thermofisher Scientific | A16046.AP | For washing. |
Trypsin-EDTA (0.5%) | Gibco | 15-400-054 | For cell culture.Β |
Tween 20 | Fisher Scientific | 9005-64-5 | Cell Permeation reagent.Β |
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