وأيد هذا العمل من قبل المؤسسة الوطنية للزمالة أبحاث العلوم العليا لSK والمعاهد الوطنية للمنح R01EB008722 هيث.

<ol>
	<li>Singer, V. L., Jones, L. J., Yue, S. T., Haugland, R. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+PicoGreen+reagent+and+development+of+a+fluorescence-based+solution+assay+for+double-stranded+DNA+quantitation.">Characterization of PicoGreen reagent and development of a fluorescence-based solution assay for double-stranded DNA quantitation.</a> Anal Biochem. 249, 228-238 (1997).</li><li>Lutolf, M. P., Raeber, G. P., Zisch, A. H., Tirelli, N., Hubbell, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-Responsive+Synthetic+Hydrogels.">Cell-Responsive Synthetic Hydrogels.</a> Adv Mater. 15, 888-892 (2003).</li><li>Elisseeff, J. H., Ruffner, M., Kim, T. G., Williams, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellular+Photoencapsulation+in+Hydrogels.">Cellular Photoencapsulation in Hydrogels.</a> Culture of Cells for Tissue Engineering. , (2006).</li><li>Chung, C., Mesa, J., Miller, G. J., Randolph, M. A., Gill, T. J., Burdick, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+auricular+chondrocyte+expansion+on+neocartilage+formation+in+photocrosslinked+hyaluronic+acid+networks.">Effects of auricular chondrocyte expansion on neocartilage formation in photocrosslinked hyaluronic acid networks.</a> Tissue Eng. 12, 2665-2773 (2006).</li><li>Burdick, J. A., Vunjak-Novakovic, G. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engineered+microenvironments+for+controlled+stem+cell+differentiation.">Engineered microenvironments for controlled stem cell differentiation.</a> Tissue Eng. Part A. 15, 205-219 (2008).</li><li>Salinas, C. N., Anseth, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mixed+Mode+Thiol-Acrylate+Photopolymerization+for+the+Synthesis+of+PEG-Peptide+Hydrogels.">Mixed Mode Thiol-Acrylate Photopolymerization for the Synthesis of PEG-Peptide Hydrogels.</a> Macromolecules. 41, 6019-6026 (2008).</li><li>Kraehenbuehl, T. P., Ferreira, L. S., Zammaretti, P., Hubbell, J. A., Langer, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-responsive+hydrogel+for+encapsulation+of+vascular+cells.">Cell-responsive hydrogel for encapsulation of vascular cells.</a> Biomaterials. 30, 4318-4324 (2009).</li><li>Strehin, I. A., Elisseeff, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterizing+ECM+Production+by+Cells+Encapsulated+in+Hydrogels.">Characterizing ECM Production by Cells Encapsulated in Hydrogels.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 522, 1-14 (2009).</li><li>Khetan, S., Katz, J. S., Burdick, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequential+crosslinking+to+control+cellular+spreading+in+3-dimensional+hydrogels.">Sequential crosslinking to control cellular spreading in 3-dimensional hydrogels.</a> Soft Matter. 5, 1601-1606 (2009).</li></ol>

البروتوكولات المذكورة يمثل طريقة بسيطة وقوية لتغليف الخلايا داخل السقالات هيدروجيل بطريقة cytocompatible. مثل هذه التقنيات أهمية خاصة منذ متباينة عضال والخلايا الجذعية يمكن أن يحمل سلوك مختلف بشكل ملحوظ في مقابل microenvironments 2D 3D. يمكن حتى للنهج العلاجية التي تنطوي على غرس المواد (على سبيل المثال ، في الموقع البلمرة الراديكالية) ، التغليف الخلية وتحليلها من أجل البقاء وتمايز المساعدة في عملية التنمية المادية. يمكن استخدامها في عملية وصفها متتابعة لمعالجة البيئة هيدروجيل مكانيا ، وبالتالي السلوك الخليوي (انظر Khetan وآخرون). عموما ، فإن أهم عنصر من البروتوكولات المذكورة هو تجانس جميع الحلول المستخدمة. على وجه الخصوص ، ينبغي إيلاء عناية خاصة لضمان موزعة بالتساوي الخلايا في حل prepolymer ، وهذا هو الحل تمتزج جيدا قبل إعادة تعليق ماصة التالية إضافة الحل crosslinker. يمكن أن فشله في ضمان هذا يؤدي الى تراكمها من الخلايا أو الاختلافات المحلية في الهيكل هلام والتورم. بينما البروتوكولات المعروضة هنا تركز أساسا على إجراء لتغليف الخلايا ، ومن المهم أن نلاحظ أيضا أن التغليف قد تتطلب بعض التعديل لتحليل البروتوكولات التي تتم كتابتها عادة لبذر 2D. وبرز العديد من الأمثلة عن تصور وتقييم الخلايا في الهلاميات المائية.

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		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
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		</thead>
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<tr>
<td>I2959</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Ciba Specialty Chemicals</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>.2 M Triethanolamine Buffer</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>T0449</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>PBS</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>14040-117</td>
<td>1x, sterile liquid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Live/Dead staining kit</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>L3224</td>
<td>Includes live (Calcein AM) and dead (ethidium homodimer-1) probes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Phalloidin-FITC</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>P5282</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Rhodamine Phalloidin</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>R415</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>DAPI</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>D9542</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Methacryloxyethyl thiocarbamoyl rhodamine B (MeRho)</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Polysciences</td>
<td>23591</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>A7030</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Tween 20</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>P1379</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Triton X-100</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>T8787</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Citrisolv</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Fisher</td>
<td>22-143975</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Micro-cut paraffin</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Polysciences, Inc.</td>
<td>24202</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>Trizol reagent</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>15596-026</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>0.22 &mu;m pore size nylon syringe filters</td>
<td>Equipment</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>09-719C</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>1 mL disposable syringes</td>
<td>Equipment</td>
<td>BD biosciences</td>
<td>309602</td>
<td>Cut syringes at consistent height for UV exposure</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Wide orifice pipette tips</td>
<td>Equipment</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>P6800</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Omnicure UV Spot Cure System with 365 nm filter</td>
<td>Equipment</td>
<td>Exfo Life Sciences Division</td>
<td>S1000</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>254 nm germicidal UV light source</td>
<td>Equipment</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Built into most biological safety cabinets</td>
</tr>		</tbody>
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cellular encapsulation in 3d hydrogels for tissue engineering 

التغليف 3D من الخلايا داخل الهلاميات المائية يمثل تقنية مهمة على نحو متزايد وشعبية لاستنبات الخلايا ونحو تطوير البنى للهندسة الأنسجة. هذا أفضل ما يحاكي البيئة مراقبة الخلايا في الجسم الحي ، بالمقارنة مع زراعة الأنسجة القياسية ، ويرجع ذلك إلى خصائص مثل النسيج والبيئة 3D. البوليمرية الهلاميات المائية الاصطناعية وشبكات المياه تورم التي يمكن أن تكون مصممة لتكون مستقرة أو للحط من خلال التحلل المائي أو التحلل البروتيني كما هو المودعة من قبل خلايا أنسجة جديدة مغلفة. وقد تم استكشاف مجموعة واسعة من البوليمرات لهذه التطبيقات ، مثل بولي (جلايكول الإثيلين) وحامض الهيالورونيك. الأكثر شيوعا ، هو البوليمر functionalized التفاعل مع مجموعات مثل methacrylates أو acrylates قادرة على يشابك تمر من خلال آليات مختلفة. في العقد الماضي ، أحرز تقدم كبير في مجال الهندسة microenvironments هذه -- على سبيل المثال ، عن طريق دمج والتساهمية البدني أو قلادة من الاشارات البيوكيميائية -- لتحسين سلامة والنمط الظاهري المباشر الخلوية ، بما في ذلك تمايز الخلايا الجذعية مغلفة (Burdick وآخرون). وقد تم تحسين الأساليب التالية لتغليف 3D من الخلايا في مختبراتنا وغيرها من لتعظيم cytocompatibility وتقليل عدد خطوات التجهيز هيدروجيل. في البروتوكولات التالية (انظر الشكل رقم 1 لتوضيح الإجراء) ، فمن المفترض أن البوليمرات functionalized قادرة على يشابك تمر بالفعل في متناول اليد ، ويمكن الاطلاع على آراء ممتازة للكيمياء البوليمرات على النحو المطبق في مجال هندسة الأنسجة في مكان آخر (Burdick وآخرون) ، وهذه الأساليب متوافقة مع مجموعة واسعة من أنواع البوليمر. علاوة على ذلك ، بالإضافة إلى مايكل من نوع (انظر Lutolf وآخرون) وخفيفة بدأت الجذور الحرة (انظر Elisseeff وآخرون.) ركزت على آليات هنا لا تشكل سوى جزء صغير من التقنيات يشابك عنها. يشابك مختلطة واسطة ، والتي استهلكت لأول مرة جزء من رد الفعل من قبل الجماعات يشابك بالإضافة إلى وجود آلية تليها الراديكالية ، هو نموذج آخر استخداما وقوية لتوجيه النمط الظاهري للخلايا مغلفة (Khetan وآخرون ، وآخرون ساليناس).

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering at JoVE.com

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering

نقدم بروتوكولات للتغليف (3D) 3 الأبعاد للخلايا داخل الهلاميات المائية الاصطناعية. ويرد الإجراء التغليف لمدة الأساليب المستخدمة عادة من يشابك (مايكل وبالإضافة إلى ذلك النوع الخفيف شرعت آليات الجذور الحرة) ، فضلا عن عدد من التقنيات لتقييم السلوك مغلفة الخلية.

تغليف الخلوية في الهلاميات المائية للهندسة الأنسجة 3D

The 3D encapsulation of cells within hydrogels represents an increasingly important and popular technique for culturing cells and towards the development ...

cellular-encapsulation-in-3d-hydrogels-for-tissue-engineering

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JoVE Journal

Biology

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering 

36.8K Views.  University of Pennsylvania. نقدم بروتوكولات للتغليف (3D) 3 الأبعاد للخلايا داخل الهلاميات المائية الاصطناعية. ويرد الإجراء التغليف لمدة الأساليب المستخدمة عادة من يشابك (مايكل وبالإضافة إلى ذلك النوع الخفيف شرعت آليات الجذور الحرة) ، فضلا عن عدد من التقنيات لتقييم السلوك مغلفة الخلية.

Video: Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering

Experimental Approaches to Tissue Engineering

مقاربات تجريبية لهندسة الأنسجة

Title Cell Encapsulation by Droplets

عنوان تغليف الخلية عن طريق الرذاذ

Electrospinning Fibrous Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering and Cell Culture

As the field of tissue engineering evolves, there is a tremendous demand to produce more suitable materials and processing techniques in order to address the requirements (e.g., mechanics and vascularity) of more intricate organs and tissues. Electrospinning is a popular technique to create fibrous scaffolds that mimic the architecture and size scale of the native extracellular matrix. These fibrous scaffolds are also useful as cell culture substrates since the fibers can be used to direct cellular behavior, including stem cell differentiation (see extensive reviews by Mauck et al. and Sill et al. for more information). In this article, we describe the general process of electrospinning polymers and as an example, electrospin a reactive hyaluronic acid capable of crosslinking with light exposure (see Ifkovits et al. for a review on photocrosslinkable materials). We also introduce further processing capabilities such as photopatterning and multi-polymer scaffold formation. Photopatterning can be used to create scaffolds with channels and multi-scale porosity to increase cellular infiltration and tissue distribution. Multi-polymer scaffolds are useful to better tune the properties (mechanics and degradation) of a scaffold, including tailored porosity for cellular infiltration. Furthermore, these techniques can be extended to include a wide array of polymers and reactive macromers to create complex scaffolds that provide the cues necessary for the development of successful tissue engineered constructs.

The process of electrospinning polymers for tissue engineering and cell culture is addressed in this article. Specifically, the electrospinning of photoreactive macromers with additional processing capabilities of photopatterning and multi-polymer electrospinning is described.

Electrospinning السقالات بوليمر الليفية للهندسة الأنسجة والخلايا الثقافة

As the field of tissue engineering evolves, there is a tremendous demand to produce more suitable materials and processing techniques in order to address ...

PuraMatrix Encapsulation of Cancer Cells

Increasing evidence suggests that culturing cancer cells in three dimensions more accurately recapitulates the complexity of tumor biology. Many of these models utilize reconstituted basement membrane derived from animals which contain a variable amount of growth factors and cytokines that can influence the growth of these cell culture models. Here, we describe in detail the preparation and use of PuraMatrix, a commercially available self assembling peptide gel that is devoid of animal-derived material and pathogens to encapsulate and propagate the ovarian cancer cell line, OVCAR-5. We begin by describing how to prepare the PuraMatrix prior to use. Next, we demonstrate how to properly mix the PuraMatrix and cell suspension to encapsulate the cells in the hydrogel. Upon the addition of cell culture media or injection into a physiological environment, the peptide component of PuraMatrix rapidly self assembles into a 3D hydrogel that exhibits a nanometer scale fibrous structure with an average pore size of 5-200 nm1. In addition, we demonstrate how to propagate cultures grown in encapsulated PuraMatrix. When encapsulated in PuraMatrix, OVCAR-5 cells assemble into three dimensional acinar structures that more closely resemble the morphology of micrometastatic nodules observed in the clinic than monolayer in vitro models. Using confocal microscopy we illustrate the appearance of representative OVCAR-5 cells encapsulated in PuraMatrix on day 1, 3, 5, and 7 post plating. The use of PuraMatrix to culture cancer cells should improve our understanding of the disease and allow us to assess treatment response in more clinically predictive model systems.

This video demonstrates how to encapsulate and culture cancer cells in PuraMatrix, a commercially available self assembling peptide gel.

PuraMatrix تغليف الخلايا السرطانية

Increasing evidence suggests that culturing cancer cells in three dimensions more accurately recapitulates the complexity of tumor biology. Many of these ...

Studying the Effects of Matrix Stiffness on Cellular Function using Acrylamide-based Hydrogels

Tissue stiffness is an important determinant of cellular function, and changes in tissue stiffness are commonly associated with fibrosis, cancer and cardiovascular disease1-11. Traditional cell biological approaches to studying cellular function involve culturing cells on a rigid substratum (plastic dishes or glass coverslips) which cannot account for the effect of an elastic ECM or the variations in ECM stiffness between tissues. To model in vivo tissue compliance conditions in vitro, we and others use ECM-coated hydrogels. In our laboratory, the hydrogels are based on polyacrylamide which can mimic the range of tissue compliances seen biologically12. "Reactive" cover slips are generated by incubation with NaOH followed by addition of 3-APTMS. Glutaraldehyde is used to cross-link the 3-APTMS and the polyacrylamide gel. A solution of acrylamide (AC), bis-acrylamide (Bis-AC) and ammonium persulfate is used for the polymerization of the hydrogel. N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) is incorporated into the AC solution to crosslink ECM protein to the hydrogel. Following polymerization of the hydrogel, the gel surface is coated with an ECM protein of choice such as fibronectin, vitronectin, collagen, etc.
The stiffness of a hydrogel can be determined by rheology or atomic force microscopy (AFM) and adjusted by varying the percentage of AC and/or bis-AC in the solution12. In this manner, substratum stiffness can be matched to the stiffness of biological tissues which can also be quantified using rheology or AFM. Cells can then be seeded on these hydrogels and cultured based upon the experimental conditions required. Imaging of the cells and their recovery for molecular analysis is straightforward. For this article, we define soft substrata as those having elastic moduli (E) &lt;3000 Pascal and stiff substrata/tissues as those with E &gt;20,000 Pascal.

The effect of substrata stiffness on cellular function can be modeled in vitro using polyacrylamide hydrogels of varying compliances.

دراسة آثار تصلب مصفوفة على وظيفة الخلوية باستخدام الأكريلاميد المستندة الهلاميات المائية

Tissue stiffness is an important determinant of cellular function, and changes in tissue stiffness are commonly associated with fibrosis, cancer and ...

A System for Culturing Iris Pigment Epithelial Cells to Study Lens Regeneration in Newt

Salamanders like newt and axolotl possess the ability to regenerate many of its lost body parts such as limbs, the tail with spinal cord, eye, brain, heart, the jaw 1. Specifically, newts are unique for its lens regeneration capability. Upon lens removal, IPE cells of the dorsal iris transdifferentiate to lens cells and eventually form a new lens in about a month 2,3. This property of regeneration is never exhibited by the ventral iris cells. The regeneration potential of the iris cells can be studied by making transplants of the in vitro cultured IPE cells. For the culture, the dorsal and ventral iris cells are first isolated from the eye and cultured separately for a time period of 2 weeks (Figure 1). These cultured cells are reaggregated and implanted back to the newt eye. Past studies have shown that the dorsal reaggregate maintains its lens forming capacity whereas the ventral aggregate does not form a lens, recapitulating, thus the in vivo process (Figure 2) 4,5. This system of determining regeneration potential of dorsal and ventral iris cells is very useful in studying the role of genes and proteins involved in lens regeneration.

In newt, the lens regenerates always from the dorsal iris by transdifferentiation of the iris pigmented epithelial cells (IPEs). Here we describe a procedure to culture dorsal and ventral newt IPE cells and their implantation to the newt eye. The implanted cells are then studied by tissue sectioning and immunohistochemistry.

نظام لخلايا الظهارية التثقيف صبغات قزحية عدسة لدراسة التجديد في نيوت

Salamanders like newt and axolotl possess the ability to regenerate many of its lost body parts such as limbs, the tail with spinal cord, eye, brain, ...

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element (CRE) Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE possesses an arrangement of binding sites for several transcription factor proteins that confer a regulatory logic specifying when, where, and at what level the regulated gene(s) is expressed. The full set of CREs within an animal genome encodes the organism&prime;s program for development1, and empirical as well as theoretical studies indicate that mutations in CREs played a prominent role in morphological evolution2-4. Moreover, human genome wide association studies indicate that genetic variation in CREs contribute substantially to phenotypic variation5,6. Thus, understanding regulatory logic and how mutations affect such logic is a central goal of genetics. 
Reporter transgenes provide a powerful method to study the in vivo function of CREs. Here a known or suspected CRE sequence is coupled to heterologous promoter and coding sequences for a reporter gene encoding an easily observable protein product. When a reporter transgene is inserted into a host organism, the CRE&prime;s activity becomes visible in the form of the encoded reporter protein. P-element mediated transgenesis in the fruit fly species Drosophila (D.) melanogaster7 has been used for decades to introduce reporter transgenes into this model organism, though the genomic placement of transgenes is random. Hence, reporter gene activity is strongly influenced by the local chromatin and gene environment, limiting CRE comparisons to being qualitative. In recent years, the phiC31 based integration system was adapted for use in D. melanogaster to insert transgenes into specific genome landing sites8-10. This capability has made the quantitative measurement of gene and, relevant here, CRE activity11-13 feasible. The production of transgenic fruit flies can be outsourced, including phiC31-based integration, eliminating the need to purchase expensive equipment and/or have proficiency at specialized transgene injection protocols. 
Here, we present a general protocol to quantitatively evaluate a CRE&prime;s activity, and show how this approach can be used to measure the effects of an introduced mutation on a CRE&prime;s activity and to compare the activities of orthologous CREs. Although the examples given are for a CRE active during fruit fly metamorphosis, the approach can be applied to other developmental stages, fruit fly species, or model organisms. Ultimately, a more widespread use of this approach to study CREs should advance an understanding of regulatory logic and how logic can vary and evolve.

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element CRE Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Phenotypic variation for traits can result from mutations in cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences that control gene expression patterns. Methods derived for use in Drosophila melanogaster can quantitatively compare the levels of spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression mediated by modified or naturally occurring CRE variants.

الكمية مقارنة رابطة الدول المستقلة التنظيم العنصر (لجنة المساواة العرقية) في الأنشطة المعدلة وراثيا ذبابة الفاكهة السوداء البطن</em

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE ...

A 3D System for Culturing Human Articular Chondrocytes in Synovial Fluid

Cartilage destruction is a central pathological feature of osteoarthritis, a leading cause of disability in the US. Cartilage in the adult does not regenerate very efficiently in vivo; and as a result, osteoarthritis leads to irreversible cartilage loss and is accompanied by chronic pain and immobility 1,2. Cartilage tissue engineering offers promising potential to regenerate and restore tissue function. This technology typically involves seeding chondrocytes into natural or synthetic scaffolds and culturing the resulting 3D construct in a balanced medium over a period of time with a goal of engineering a biochemically and biomechanically mature tissue that can be transplanted into a defect site in vivo 3-6. Achieving an optimal condition for chondrocyte growth and matrix deposition is essential for the success of cartilage tissue engineering. 
 In the native joint cavity, cartilage at the articular surface of the bone is bathed in synovial fluid. This clear and viscous fluid provides nutrients to the avascular articular cartilage and contains growth factors, cytokines and enzymes that are important for chondrocyte metabolism 7,8. Furthermore, synovial fluid facilitates low-friction movement between cartilaginous surfaces mainly through secreting two key components, hyaluronan and lubricin 9 10. In contrast, tissue engineered cartilage is most often cultured in artificial media. While these media are likely able to provide more defined conditions for studying chondrocyte metabolism, synovial fluid most accurately reflects the natural environment of which articular chondrocytes reside in.
 Indeed, synovial fluid has the advantage of being easy to obtain and store, and can often be regularly replenished by the body. Several groups have supplemented the culture medium with synovial fluid in growing human, bovine, rabbit and dog chondrocytes, but mostly used only low levels of synovial fluid (below 20&#37;) 11-25. While chicken, horse and human chondrocytes have been cultured in the medium with higher percentage of synovial fluid, these culture systems were two-dimensional 26-28. Here we present our method of culturing human articular chondrocytes in a 3D system with a high percentage of synovial fluid (up to 100&#37;) over a period of 21 days. In doing so, we overcame a major hurdle presented by the high viscosity of the synovial fluid. This system provides the possibility of studying human chondrocytes in synovial fluid in a 3D setting, which can be further combined with two other important factors (oxygen tension and mechanical loading) 29,30 that constitute the natural environment for cartilage to mimic the natural milieu for cartilage growth. Furthermore, This system may also be used for assaying synovial fluid activity on chondrocytes and provide a platform for developing cartilage regeneration technologies and therapeutic options for arthritis.

A 3D system of culturing human articular chondrocytes in high levels of synovial fluid is described. Synovial fluid reflects the most natural microenvironment for articular cartilage, and can be easily obtained and stored. This system thus can be used for studying cartilage regeneration and for screening therapeutics for treating arthritis.

ونظام 3D لغضروفية التثقيف مفصلي الإنسان في السائل الزليلي

Cartilage destruction is a central pathological feature of osteoarthritis, a leading cause of disability in the US. Cartilage in the adult does not ...

Mechanical Stimulation of Chondrocyte-agarose Hydrogels

Articular cartilage suffers from a limited repair capacity when damaged by mechanical insult or degraded by disease, such as osteoarthritis. To remedy this deficiency, several medical interventions have been developed. One such method is to resurface the damaged area with tissue-engineered cartilage; however, the engineered tissue typically lacks the biochemical properties and durability of native cartilage, questioning its long-term survivability. This limits the application of cartilage tissue engineering to the repair of small focal defects, relying on the surrounding tissue to protect the implanted material. To improve the properties of the developed tissue, mechanical stimulation is a popular method utilized to enhance the synthesis of cartilaginous extracellular matrix as well as the resultant mechanical properties of the engineered tissue. Mechanical stimulation applies forces to the tissue constructs analogous to those experienced in vivo. This is based on the premise that the mechanical environment, in part, regulates the development and maintenance of native tissue1,2. The most commonly applied form of mechanical stimulation in cartilage tissue engineering is dynamic compression at physiologic strains of approximately 5-20% at a frequency of 1 Hz1,3. Several studies have investigated the effects of dynamic compression and have shown it to have a positive effect on chondrocyte metabolism and biosynthesis, ultimately affecting the functional properties of the developed tissue4-8. In this paper, we illustrate the method to mechanically stimulate chondrocyte-agarose hydrogel constructs under dynamic compression and analyze changes in biosynthesis through biochemical and radioisotope assays. This method can also be readily modified to assess any potentially induced changes in cellular response as a result of mechanical stimuli.

The biosynthesis of cartilaginous extracellular matrix by chondrocytes can be affected by application of mechanical stimuli. This method describes the technique of applying dynamic compressive strains to chondrocytes encapsulated in 3D constructs and the evaluation of induced changes in chondrocyte metabolism.

الميكانيكية حفز خلية غضروفية-الاغاروز الهلاميات المائية

Articular cartilage suffers from a limited repair capacity when damaged by mechanical insult or degraded by disease, such as osteoarthritis. To remedy ...

Preparation of DNA-crosslinked Polyacrylamide Hydrogels

Mechanobiology is an emerging scientific area that addresses the critical role of physical cues in directing cell morphology and function. For example, the effect of tissue elasticity on cell function is a major area of mechanobiology research because tissue stiffness modulates with disease, development, and injury. Static tissue-mimicking materials, or materials that cannot alter stiffness once cells are plated, are predominately used to investigate the effects of tissue stiffness on cell functions. While information gathered from static studies is valuable, these studies are not indicative of the dynamic nature of the cellular microenvironment in vivo. To better address the effects of dynamic stiffness on cell function, we developed a DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogel system (DNA gels). Unlike other dynamic substrates, DNA gels have the ability to decrease or increase in stiffness after fabrication without stimuli. DNA gels consist of DNA crosslinks that are polymerized into a polyacrylamide backbone. Adding and removing crosslinks via delivery of single-stranded DNA allows temporal, spatial, and reversible control of gel elasticity. We have shown in previous reports that dynamic modulation of DNA gel elasticity influences fibroblast and neuron behavior. In this report and video, we provide a schematic that describes the DNA gel crosslinking mechanisms and step-by-step instructions on the preparation DNA gels.

Our laboratory has developed DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogels, a dynamic hydrogel system, to better understand the effects of modulating tissue stiffness on cell function. Here, we provide schematics, descriptions, and protocols to prepare these hydrogels.

إعداد crosslinked-DNA بولي أكريلاميد الهلاميات المائية

Mechanobiology is an emerging scientific area that addresses the critical role of physical cues in directing cell morphology and function. For example, ...