This material is based on the works supported by Nanyang Assistant Professorship (NAP, M4080740), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) Public Sector Research Funding (PSF, M4070190), A*STAR-JST (The Japan Science and Technology Agency) joint grant (M4070198), and Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE2013-T2-2-049). The authors would like to thank Mr. Roger Tan Kay Chia, Prof. Low Kin Huat, Mr. Poon Kee Chun, Mr. Chew Hock See, Mr. Lam Kim Kheong and Dr. Mao Shixin at School of MAE for their support in setting up and maintaining the research facilities. The authors thank Prof. Michel Maharbiz (U.C. Berkeley) his advice and discussion, Prof. Kris Pister and his group (U.C. Berkeley) for their support in providing the GINA used in this study.

1. دراسة الحيوان <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> الخلفية الفردية الخنافس torquata Mecynorrhina (6 سم، 8 غ) في حاويات بلاستيكية منفصلة مع أغطية فراش الخشب بيليه. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إطعام كل خنفساء كوب من هلام السكر (12 مل) كل 3 أيام. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> الحفاظ على درجة الحرارة والرطوبة من الغرفة تربية عند 25 درجة مئوية و 60٪ على التوالي. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> اختبار القدرة رحلة كل خنفساء قبل زرع أقطاب كهربائية سلك رقيقة. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> رمي بلطف خنفساء في الهواء. إذا كانت خنفساء يمكن أن تطير لمدة أطول من 10 ثانية لمدة 5 محاكمات متتالية، نستنتج أن خنفساء لديها قدرات رحلة منتظمة وتوظيف ذلك لإجراء التجارب رحلة لاحقة. لاستعادة خنفساء، إيقاف جميع الأضواء في الغرفة لجعلها الظلام. يؤدي هذا خنفساء لإنهاء الرحلة. ملاحظة: خنفساء يبدأ من تلقاء أنفسهم أن يطير بعيدا عندما تطلق في الهواء. فمن الأفضل لإجراء تجارب الطيران في غرفة مغلقة كبيرة مثل واحد هو مبين في الشكل رقم 1 (16 × 8 × 4 م <suP&gt; 3 مع مساحة التقاط الحركة من 12.5 × 8 × 4 م 3)، وتحلق التحركات خنفساء سريع جدا (حوالي 3-5 م / ثانية) وتوجه أقواس كبيرة عندما تحول في الهواء. </li></ol></li></ol> 2. الكهربائي زرع <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تخدير خنفساء عن طريق وضعها في وعاء من البلاستيك مليئة CO 2 لمدة 1 دقيقة 13،16،20-24. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تليين الشمع الأسنان عن طريق غمس في الماء الساخن لمدة 10 ثانية. وضع خنفساء تخدير على كتلة خشبية وتعطيلها مع الشمع الأسنان اللين. الشمع الأسنان بشكل طبيعي يبرد ويتصلب في غضون بضع دقائق. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> قطع معزول أسلاك الفضة (127 ميكرون قطرها العارية، 178 ميكرون قطر عندما المغلفة مع perfluoroalkoxy) في أطوال 25 ملم لاستخدام أقطاب كهربائية سلك رقيقة لزرع. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> فضح 3 ملم من الفضة العارية التي كتبها المشتعلة عازل على طرفي كل سلك. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تشريح السطح العلوي للبشرة الخنفساء باستخدام مقص الجميلة ذات الرؤوس لخلق SMAنافذة ليرة لبنانية من حوالي 4 × 4 ملم على metepisternum (الشكل 2C). ملاحظة: ثم يتعرض لبشرة ناعمة البني اللون، كما هو مبين في أرقام 2C - ه. يقع عضلة 3AX تحت بشرة ناعمة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> بيرس اثنين من الثقوب على بشرة سمراء يتعرض باستخدام دبوس الحشرات (حجم 00) مع مسافة 2 مم بين اثنين من الثقوب (الشكل 2D). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إدراج قطبين الأسلاك (بما في ذلك واحد الأقطاب الفاعلة وعودة واحدة أعدت في الخطوة 2.4) بعناية من خلال الثقوب وغرسها في كل عضلة 3AX على عمق 3 مم. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تأمين أقطاب كهربائية مزروعة وعقد لهم في المكان لتجنب الاتصال وقصيرة الدوائر من خلال إسقاط شمع العسل المذاب في الثقوب. إذا لزم الأمر، إنحسر شمع النحل على بشرة عن طريق لمس شمع العسل مع غيض من حام الحديد الساخن. شمع النحل بسرعة يتصلب ويعزز الزرع. ملاحظة: لمعرفة ما اذا كان الزرع هو الصحيح، وelytra من البنجرلو يمكن رفعها لمراقبة حركة العضلات 3AX خلال التحفيز الكهربائي. </li></ol> 3. الجمعية الظهر لاسلكية ملاحظة: على ظهره يتألف من المدمج في متحكم الراديو على الطبقات متن 4 FR-4 (1.6 X 1.6 سم 2). وكان الدافع وراء ظهره من قبل microbattery ليثيوم بوليمر (3.7 V، 350 ملغ، 10 ماه). وكانت الكتلة الاجمالية للحقيبة بما في ذلك البطارية 1.2 ± 0.26 جرام وهو أقل من الحمولة من خنفساء (30٪ من 10 غرام من وزن الجسم). ومبرمجة مسبقا على ظهره لتلقي الاتصالات اللاسلكية، وكان اثنين من قنوات الانتاج. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تنظيف السطح pronotum (إزالة طبقة الشمع على بشرة) باستخدام الشريط على الوجهين. ثم، ونعلق على ظهره على pronotum من خنفساء مع قطعة من الشريط على الوجهين. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> قم بتوصيل طرفي زرع أقطاب كهربائية إلى مخرجات ظهره. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> التفاف الشريط عاكسة حول microbattery لإنتاج علامة FOص الكاميرات التقاط الحركة للكشف. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إرفاق microbattery إلى الجزء العلوي من الظهر باستخدام قطعة من الشريط على الوجهين بحيث يمكن الكشف عن شريط عاكسة بواسطة كاميرات التقاط الحركة. </li></ol> 4. نظام التحكم اللاسلكي ملاحظة: في هذه الحالة، ويشمل نظام تحكم لاسلكي المدى جهاز استقبال للتحكم عن بعد، جهاز كمبيوتر محمول لتشغيل برامج مخصصة للتحكم في الطيران، ومحطة قاعدة، وعلى ظهره، ونظام التقاط الحركة. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> ربط محطة قاعدة وجهاز استقبال للتحكم عن بعد لجهاز الكمبيوتر المحمول عن طريق منافذ USB. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> التبديل على نظام التقاط الحركة وتوصيله إلى جهاز الكمبيوتر المحمول عن طريق منفذ إيثرنت. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أداء المعايرة حجم من خلال التلويح عصا معايرة (التي تقدمها الشركة بمورد نظام التقاط الحركة) لتغطية كامل مساحة التقاط الحركة. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> فتح البرنامج التقاط الحركة من سطح المكتب للكمبيوتر محمول. انقر والدكتورآغ لتحديد كافة الكاميرات على القائمة &quot;النظام&quot; لوحة &quot;الموارد&quot;. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> انقر على قائمة &quot;منظور 3D&quot; وحدد &quot;كاميرا&quot; لتغيير عرض الكاميرا. انقر فوق علامة التبويب &quot;الكاميرا&quot; على لوحة &quot;أدوات&quot; لإظهار الإعداد المعايرة. انقر على &quot;ابدأ&quot; في القائمة &quot;إنشاء أقنعة كاميرا&quot; للقضاء على الضوضاء من الكاميرات وثم &quot;إيقاف&quot; بعد حجب الضوضاء في الزرقاء. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> فوق وحدد &quot;5 ماركر العصا &amp; L-الإطار&quot; من القائمة &quot;العصا&quot; و &quot;L-الإطار&quot; القائمة على علامة التبويب &quot;الكاميرا&quot;. تعيين &quot;عدد العصا&quot; ل2500، انقر على &quot;ابدأ&quot; في القائمة &quot;معايرة كاميرات&quot;، وتلويح عصا المعايرة من خلال الفضاء التقاط الحركة بأكمله. توقف عملية المعايرة عندما يصل العد عصا 2500. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تكرار عملية المعايرة إذا الخطأ الصورة (في الجزء السفلي من &quot;الكاميرا&quot; علامة التبويب لوحة &quot;أدوات&quot;) هي أعلى من 0.3 وأو أي كاميرا. بعد معايرة، ووضع عصا على الأرض في منتصف الفضاء التقاط الحركة وانقر على &quot;ابدأ&quot; في القائمة &quot;تعيين حجم المنشأ&quot; لتعيين أصل مساحة التقاط الحركة. </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تحقق تغطية نظام التقاط الحركة باستخدام اختبار وهمية لتسجيل مسار الحركة من علامة لوح من قبل المستخدم في الفضاء التقاط الحركة وتأكيد ما إذا كان يتم الكشف عن علامة وتتبعها. إذا غالبا ما يتم فقدان علامة أثناء الكشف، وتكرار المعايرة حجم حتى ينجح في الاختبار وهمية. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> انقر فوق علامة التبويب &quot;لقطة&quot; على لوحة &quot;أدوات&quot; ثم &quot;ابدأ&quot; في القائمة &quot;لقطة&quot; قبل التلويح علامة عينة من خلال الفضاء التقاط الحركة بأكمله لتسجيل مساره. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> بعد التسجيل، انقر على &quot;تشغيل خط أنابيب إعادة إعمار&quot; لإعادة بناء مواقف علامة والتحقق من جودة التسجيل. </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> ربط محطات للmicrobattery (تعلق على ظهره في الخطوة 3.4) إلى دبابيس السلطة من ظهره. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> اختبار الاتصال اللاسلكي بين الكمبيوتر المحمول وظهره باستخدام برامج مخصصة للتحكم في الطيران. انقر على &quot;ابدأ&quot; الأمر على البرنامج والتحقق من حالة الاتصال المعروضة. </li></ol> تجربة 5. رحلة مجانية <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تنفيذ تجربة رحلة مجانية في ساحة الطيران قياس 16 × 8 × 4 م 3. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إدخال المعلمات المناسبة إلى برنامج التحكم في الطيران (الجهد، وعرض النبضة، والتردد، ومدة التحفيز). ملاحظة: للمظاهرة، ونحن ثابت الجهد إلى 3 V، عرض النبضة إلى 3 ميللي ثانية، ومدة التحفيز إلى 1 ثانية، واختلفت وتيرة 60-100 هرتز. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> على الشاشة البرمجيات نوع 3 3 V في مربع &quot;الجهد&quot;، 1000 ل1000 ميللي ثانية في مربع &quot;مدة تحفيز&quot; (3)، لمدة 3 مللي في مربع &quot;نبض العرض&quot;، والتردد المطلوب في هرتز في &quot; تردد &quot;مربع سن إطار الأوامر. </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> الافراج عن خنفساء محمولة على ظهره في الهواء والسماح لها تطير بحرية داخل الساحة الرحلة. يؤدي يدويا التحفيز عندما يدخل خنفساء الفضاء التقاط الحركة. اضغط على الزر المناسب الأوامر (اليسار أو اليمين) على جهاز التحكم عن بعد لتحفيز العضلات المستهدفة على الجانب الأيسر أو الأيمن من خنفساء. ملاحظة: بمجرد الضغط على الزر، برنامج التحكم في الطيران التي تعمل على الكمبيوتر المحمول يولد الأمر ويرسله إلى ظهره. على ظهره ثم إخراج التحفيز الكهربائي لعضلة من الفائدة (على الجانب الأيسر أو الأيمن). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> مراقبة رد فعل الخنفساء في الوقت الحقيقي خلال التحفيز وإعادة بناء البيانات باستخدام برنامج الرسوم البيانية 3D. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> اختر واحدة من التجارب المسجلة في قائمة البيانات من النافذة &quot;العرض خنفساء&quot;، وانقر فوق &quot;تصدير باندا&quot; لنسخ البيانات من تلك المحاكمة إلى المجلد تحليل وتشغيل وحدة الرسوم البيانية 3D. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> اضغط على &quot;N&quot; علىلوحة المفاتيح الجمع بين إشارة التحفيز مع مسار المسجلة. أنا اضغط لإظهار مسار خنفساء مع فترات التحفيز تسليط الضوء عليها. </li></ol></li></ol>

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C., Herrera, M., Bustamante, M., Shingiro, A., Bowen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effective+Stimulus+Parameters+for+Directed+Locomotion+in+Madagascar+Hissing+Cockroach+Biobot.">Effective Stimulus Parameters for Directed Locomotion in Madagascar Hissing Cockroach Biobot.</a> PLoS ONE. 10 (8), e0134348 (2015).</li><li>Zhaolin, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+preliminary+study+of+motion+control+patterns+for+biorobotic+spiders.">A preliminary study of motion control patterns for biorobotic spiders.</a> , 128-132 (2014).</li><li>Feng, C., Chao, Z., Hao Yu, C., Sato, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Insect-machine+hybrid+robot:+Insect+walking+control+by+sequential+electrical+stimulation+of+leg+muscles.">Insect-machine hybrid robot: Insect walking control by sequential electrical stimulation of leg muscles.</a> , 4576-4582 (2015).</li><li>Cao, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Biological+Micro+Actuator:+Graded+and+Closed-Loop+Control+of+Insect+Leg+Motion+by+Electrical+Stimulation+of+Muscles.">A Biological Micro Actuator: Graded and Closed-Loop Control of Insect Leg Motion by Electrical Stimulation of Muscles.</a> PLoS ONE. 9 (8), e105389 (2014).</li><li>Zhao, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuromechanism+Study+of+Insect-Machine+Interface:+Flight+Control+by+Neural+Electrical+Stimulation.">Neuromechanism Study of Insect-Machine Interface: Flight Control by Neural Electrical Stimulation.</a> PLoS ONE. 9 (11), e113012 (2014).</li><li>Tsang, W. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flexible+Split-Ring+Electrode+for+Insect+Flight+Biasing+Using+Multisite+Neural+Stimulation.">Flexible Split-Ring Electrode for Insect Flight Biasing Using Multisite Neural Stimulation.</a> IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 57 (7), 1757-1764 (2010).</li><li>Barron, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anaesthetising+Drosophila+for+behavioural+studies.">Anaesthetising Drosophila for behavioural studies.</a> J. Insect Physiol. 46 (4), 439-442 (2000).</li><li>Cooper, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anesthesia,+Analgesia,+and+Euthanasia+of+Invertebrates.">Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Euthanasia of Invertebrates.</a> ILAR Journal. 52 (2), 196-204 (2011).</li><li>Miller, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Insect neurophysiological techniques. , (2012).</li><li>Leary, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> AVMA guidelines for the euthanasia of animals. , (2013).</li><li>Heath, B., West, G., Heard, D., Caulkett, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mobile+Inhalant+Anesthesia+Techniques.">Mobile Inhalant Anesthesia Techniques.</a> in Zoo Animal and Wildlife Immobilization and Anesthesia. , 75-80 (2008).</li><li>Mischiati, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Internal+models+direct+dragonfly+interception+steering.">Internal models direct dragonfly interception steering.</a> Nature. 517 (7534), 333-338 (2015).</li><li>Kutsch, W., Berger, S., Kautz, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Turning+Manoeuvres+in+Free-Flying+Locusts:+Two-Channel+Radio-Telemetric+Transmission+of+Muscle+Activity.">Turning Manoeuvres in Free-Flying Locusts: Two-Channel Radio-Telemetric Transmission of Muscle Activity.</a> J. Exp. Zoolog. Part A Comp. Exp. Biol. 299 (2), 139-150 (2003).</li><li>Wang, H., Ando, N., Kanzaki, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Active+Control+of+Free+Flight+Manoeuvres+in+a+Hawkmoth,+Agrius+Convolvuli.">Active Control of Free Flight Manoeuvres in a Hawkmoth, Agrius Convolvuli.</a> J. Exp. Biol. 211 (3), 423-432 (2008).</li><li>Sato, H., Maharbiz, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+developments+in+the+remote+radio+control+of+insect+flight.">Recent developments in the remote radio control of insect flight.</a> Front. Neurosci. 4, (2010).</li><li>Tien Van, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flight+behavior+of+the+rhinoceros+beetle+Trypoxylus+dichotomus+during+electrical+nerve+stimulation.">Flight behavior of the rhinoceros beetle Trypoxylus dichotomus during electrical nerve stimulation.</a> Bioinsp. Biomim. 7 (3), 036021 (2012).</li><li>Sane, S. P., Dickinson, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+control+of+flight+force+by+a+flapping+wing:+lift+and+drag+production.">The control of flight force by a flapping wing: lift and drag production.</a> J. Exp. Biol. 204 (15), 2607-2626 (2001).</li><li>de Croon, G. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design,+aerodynamics+and+autonomy+of+the+DelFly.">Design, aerodynamics and autonomy of the DelFly.</a> Bioinsp. Biomim. 7 (2), 025003 (2012).</li><li>Ma, K. Y., Chirarattananon, P., Fuller, S. B., Wood, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Controlled+Flight+of+a+Biologically+Inspired,+Insect-Scale+Robot.">Controlled Flight of a Biologically Inspired, Insect-Scale Robot.</a> Science. 340 (6132), 603-607 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

عملية زرع أمر مهم، لأنه يؤثر على مصداقية التجربة. يجب أن يتم إدراج الأقطاب في العضلات على عمق 3 مم أو أقل اعتمادا على حجم خنفساء (تجنب الاتصال مع العضلات المجاورة). إذا الأقطاب تلمس العضلات المجاورة، قد تحدث الإجراءات المحرك غير المرغوب فيها والسلوكيات بسبب تقلص العضل...

An insect-machine hybrid system, often referred to as a cyborg insect or biobot, is the fusion of a living insect platform with a miniature mounted electronic device. The electronic device, which is wirelessly commanded by a remote user, outputs an electrical signal to electrically stimulate neuromuscular sites in the insect via implanted wire electrodes to induce user desired motor actions and behaviors. In the early stages of this research field, researchers were limited to conducting wireless recording of the muscular action of an insect, using simple analog circuits comprised of surface-mounted components1-3. The development of system-on-a-chip technology with radio frequency functionality enabled not only the wireless recording of neuromuscular signals but also the electrical stimulation of the neuromuscular sites in living insects. At present, a built-in radio microcontroller is small enough to be mounted on living insects without causing any obstructions to their locomotion4-13.
The development of the built-in radio microcontroller allows researchers to determine electrical stimulation protocols to induce desired motor actions to control the locomotion of the insect of interest. On the ground, researchers have demonstrated walking control by stimulating the neuromuscular sites of cockroaches4,12,14, spiders15, and beetles16,17. In the air, the initiation and cessation of flight were achieved using different methods such as the stimulation of the optic lobes (the massive neural cluster of a compound eye) in beetles7,9 and brain sub-regions in bees18, whereas turning control has been demonstrated by stimulating the antennae muscles and nervous system of the abdomens in moths11,19 and the flight muscles of beetles7,9,13. In most cases, a built-in radio microcontroller was integrated on a custom-designed printed circuit board to produce a miniature wireless stimulator (backpack), which was mounted on the insect of interest. This allows wireless electrical stimulation to be applied to a freely walking or flying insect. Such a microcontroller-mounted insect is what is referred to as an insect-machine hybrid system. 
This study describes the experimental protocols for building an insect-machine hybrid system, wherein a living beetle is employed as the insect platform, and instructs on how to operate the robot and test its flight control systems. The third axillary sclerite (3Ax) muscle was chosen as the muscle of interest for electrical stimulation and demonstration of left or right turning control13. A pair of thin silver wire electrodes was implanted in both the left and right 3Ax muscles. Moreover, a backpack was mounted on the living beetle. The other ends of the wire electrode were connected to the output pins of the microcontroller. The backpack was small enough for the beetle to carry in flight. Thus, this allows an experimentalist to remotely stimulate the muscle of interest of an insect in free flight and investigate its reactions to the stimulations.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Mecynorrhina torquata beetle</td><td>Kingdom of Beetle Taiwan</td><td></td><td>10 g, 8 cm, pay load capacity is 30% of the body mass&lt;br/&gt; Aproval of importing and using by Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA; HS code: 01069000, product code: ALV002).</td></tr><tr><td>Wireless backpack stimulator</td><td>Custom</td><td></td><td>TI CC2431 micocontroler&lt;br/&gt; The board is custom made based on the GINA board from Prof. Kris Pister&amp;rsquo;s lab. The layout of GINA board can be found at&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; https://openwsn.atlassian.net/wiki/display/OW/GINA</td></tr><tr><td>Wii Remote control</td><td>Nintendo</td><td></td><td>Bluetooth remote control to send the command to the operator laptop</td></tr><tr><td>BeetleCommander v1.8</td><td>Custom. Maharbiz group at UC Berkeley and Sato group at NTU</td><td></td><td>Establish the wireless communication of the backpack and the operator laptop. Configure the stimulus parameters and log the positional data. Visualize the flight data.</td></tr><tr><td>GINA base station</td><td>Kris Pister group at UC Berkeley</td><td></td><td>TI MSP430F2618 and AT86RF231</td></tr><tr><td>Motion capture system</td><td>VICON</td><td>T160</td><td>8 cameras for a flight arena of 12.5 m x 8 m x 4 m</td></tr><tr><td>Motion capture system</td><td>VICON</td><td>T40s</td><td>12 cameras for a flight arena of 12.5 x 8 x 4 m</td></tr><tr><td>Micro battery</td><td>Fullriver</td><td>&amp;nbsp;201013HS10C&amp;nbsp;</td><td>3.7V, 10 mAh</td></tr><tr><td>Retro reflective tape</td><td>Reflexite</td><td>V92-1549-010150</td><td>V92 reflective tape, silver color</td></tr><tr><td>PFA-Insulated Silver Wire&amp;nbsp;</td><td>A-M systems</td><td>786000</td><td>127 &amp;micro;m bare, 177.8 &amp;micro;m coated, 3 mm bare silver flame exposed at tips</td></tr><tr><td>SMT Micro Header&amp;nbsp;</td><td>SAMTEC</td><td>FTSH-110-01-L-DV</td><td>0.3 mm x 6 mm, bend to make a 3 mm long slider to secure the electrode into the PCB header.</td></tr><tr><td>Beeswax</td><td></td><td></td><td>Secure the electrodes</td></tr><tr><td>Dental Wax</td><td>Vertex</td><td></td><td>Immobilize the beetle</td></tr><tr><td>Insect pin</td><td>ROBOZ</td><td>RS-6082-30</td><td>Size&amp;nbsp; 00; 0.3 mm Rod diameter; 0.03 mm tip width; 38 mm Length&amp;nbsp;&lt;br/&gt; Make electrode guiding holes on cuticle</td></tr><tr><td>Tweezers</td><td>DUMONT</td><td>RS-5015</td><td>Pattern #5; .05 mm x .01 mm Tip Size; 110 mm Length&lt;br/&gt; Dissecting and implantation</td></tr><tr><td>Scissors</td><td>ROBOZ</td><td>RS-5620</td><td>Vannas Micro Dissecting Spring Scissors; Straight; 3mm Cutting Edge; 0.1 mm Tip Width; 3&quot; Overall Length&amp;nbsp;&lt;br/&gt; Dissecting and implantation</td></tr><tr><td>Potable soldering iron</td><td>DAIYO</td><td>DS241</td><td>Reflow beeswax</td></tr><tr><td>Hotplate&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CORNING</td><td>PC-400D</td><td>Melting beeswax and dental wax</td></tr><tr><td>Flourescent lamp</td><td>Philips</td><td>TL5 14W</td><td>Light the entire flight arena with 30 panels (60 x 60 cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). Each panel has 3 lamps.&lt;br/&gt; 14 W, 549 mm x 17 mm&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

insect-machine hybrid system: remote radio control of a freely flying beetle (mercynorrhina torquata)

ودفع ارتفاع الأجهزة الإلكترونية الرقمية تمكين الراديو استخدام مسجلات العصبي العضلي لاسلكية صغيرة والتحفيز والتشجيع لدراسة سلوك الحشرات على متن الطائرة. وتمكن هذه التكنولوجيا في تطوير نظام هجين الحشرات الجهاز باستخدام منصة الحشرات الحية وصفها في هذا البروتوكول. وعلاوة على ذلك، يقدم هذا البروتوكول تكوين النظام وهروب الإجراءات التجريبية المجانية لتقييم وظيفة عضلات الطيران في حشرة غير المربوطة. للتظاهر، ونحن استهدفت الثالثة العضلات إبطي sclerite (3AX) للسيطرة وتحقيق تحول إلى اليسار أو اليمين من خنفساء الطيران. وقد زرع رقيقة سلك كهربائي الفضة على العضلات 3AX على كل جانب من خنفساء. هذه كانت موصولة إلى مخرجات على ظهره لاسلكي (أي مشجعا الكهربائي العضلي العصبي) التي شنت على pronotum الخنفساء. وحفز العضلات في رحلة مجانية بالتناوب الجانب التحفيز (اليمين أو اليسار) أو متفاوتة stimulatioتردد ن. تحولت خنفساء إلى الجانب المماثل عندما تم تحفيز العضلات وأظهرت استجابة متدرجة إلى تردد متزايد. عملية زرع ومعايرة حجم الحركة نظام التقاط الكاميرا الأبعاد 3 تحتاج إلى أن تنفذ بعناية لتجنب إتلاف العضلات وفقدان مسار علامة، على التوالي. هذا الأسلوب هو مفيد للغاية لدراسة طيران الحشرات، كما أنه يساعد على الكشف عن وظائف عضلات الطيران من الفائدة في رحلة مجانية.

ويرد الإجراء القطب غرس في الشكل 2 زرعت فضة رقيقة أقطاب الأسلاك في عضلة 3AX الخنفساء من خلال فتحات صغيرة مثقوبة على بشرة ناعمة على (2D أرقام - ه) في العضلات. تم العثور على هذه بشرة ناعمة فقط فوق apodema عضلة basalar بعد إزالة الجزء الأم...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle Mercynorrhina torquata at JoVE.com

Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle Mercynorrhina torquata

This protocol describes the process of constructing an insect-machine hybrid system and carrying out wireless electrical stimulation of the flight muscles required to control the turning motion of a flying insect.

الحشرات آلة النظام الهجين: التحكم عن بعد راديو سيارة بيتل الطائر بحرية (<em&gt; Mercynorrhina torquata</em&gt;)

The rise of radio-enabled digital electronic devices has prompted the use of small wireless neuromuscular recorders and stimulators for studying in-flight ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle (Mercynorrhina torquata)

12.1K Views.  Nanyang Technological University. This protocol describes the process of constructing an insect-machine hybrid system and carrying out wireless electrical stimulation of the flight muscles required to control the turning motion of a flying insect.

Video: Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle Mercynorrhina torquata

Early Metamorphic Insertion Technology for Insect Flight Behavior Monitoring

Early Metamorphosis Insertion Technology (EMIT) is a novel methodology for integrating microfabricated neuromuscular recording and actuation platforms on insects during their metamorphic development. Here, the implants are fused within the structure and function of the neuromuscular system as a result of metamorphic tissue remaking. The implants emerge with the insect where the development of tissue around the electronics during pupal development results in a bioelectrically and biomechanically enhanced tissue interface. This relatively more reliable and stable interface would be beneficial for many researchers exploring the neural basis of the insect locomotion with alleviated traumatic effects caused during adult stage insertions. In this article, we implant our electrodes into the indirect flight muscles of Manduca sexta. Located in the dorsal-thorax, these main flight powering dorsoventral and dorsolongitudinal muscles actuate the wings and supply the mechanical power for up and down strokes. Relative contraction of these two muscle groups has been under investigation to explore how the yaw maneuver is neurophysiologically coordinated. To characterize the flight dynamics, insects are often tethered with wires and their flight is recorded with digital cameras. We also developed a novel way to tether Manduca sexta on a magnetically levitating frame where the insect is connected to a commercially available wireless neural amplifier. This set up can be used to limit the degree of freedom to yawing &#8220;only&#8221; while transmitting the related electromyography signals from dorsoventral and dorsolongitudinal muscle groups.

We present a novel surgical procedure to implant electrodes in Manduca sexta during its early metamorphic stages. This technique allows mechanically stable and electrically reliable coupling with the neuromuscular tissue to study flight neurophysiology dynamics. We also present a novel magnetic levitation platform for tethered studies of insect yaw.

المتحولة الإدراج المبكر لتكنولوجيا الطيران سلوك الحشرات الرصد

Early Metamorphosis Insertion Technology (EMIT) is a novel methodology for integrating microfabricated neuromuscular recording and actuation platforms on ...

Behavior

Rearing and Double-stranded RNA-mediated Gene Knockdown in the Hide Beetle, Dermestes maculatus

Advances in genomics have raised the possibility of probing biodiversity at an unprecedented scale. However, sequence alone will not be informative without tools to study gene function. The development and sharing of detailed protocols for the establishment of new model systems in laboratories, and for tools to carry out functional studies, is thus crucial for leveraging the power of genomics. Coleoptera (beetles) are the largest clade of insects and occupy virtually all types of habitats on the planet. In addition to providing ideal models for fundamental research, studies of beetles can have impacts on pest control as they are often pests of households, agriculture, and food industries. Detailed protocols for rearing and maintenance of D. maculatus laboratory colonies and for carrying out dsRNA-mediated interference in D. maculatus are presented. Both embryonic and parental RNAi procedures-including apparatus set up, preparation, injection, and post-injection recovery-are described. Methods are also presented for analyzing embryonic phenotypes, including viability, patterning defects in hatched larvae, and cuticle preparations for unhatched larvae. These assays, together with in situ hybridization and immunostaining for molecular markers, make D. maculatus an accessible model system for basic and applied research. They further provide useful information for establishing procedures in other emerging insect model systems.

Rearing and Double-stranded RNA-mediated Gene Knockdown in the Hide Beetle, Dermestes maculatus

Here, we present protocols for rearing an intermediate-germ beetle, Dermestes maculatus (D. maculatus) in the lab. We also share protocols for embryonic and parental RNAi and methods for analyzing embryonic phenotypes to study gene function in this species.

تربية ومزدوجة الذين تقطعت بهم السبل بوساطة الحمض النووي الريبي الجينات ضربة قاضية في إخفاء بيتل،<em&gt; Dermestes المبقعة</em

Advances in genomics have raised the possibility of probing biodiversity at an unprecedented scale. However, sequence alone will not be informative ...

Genetics

Operant Learning of Drosophila at the Torque Meter

For experiments at the torque meter, flies are kept on standard fly medium at 25&deg;C and 60% humidity with a 12hr light/12hr dark regime. A standardized breeding regime assures proper larval density and age-matched cohorts. Cold-anesthetized flies are glued with head and thorax to a triangle-shaped hook the day before the experiment. Attached to the torque meter via a clamp, the fly's intended flight maneuvers are measured as the angular momentum around its vertical body axis. The fly is placed in the center of a cylindrical panorama to accomplish stationary flight. An analog to digital converter card feeds the yaw torque signal into a computer which stores the trace for later analysis. The computer also controls a variety of stimuli which can be brought under the fly's control by closing the feedback loop between these stimuli and the yaw torque trace. Punishment is achieved by applying heat from an adjustable infrared laser.

Measuring the yaw torque of tethered Drosophila with the torque meter allows the neuroscientist exquisite control of the stimulus situation of the experimental animal. Together with the unique genetic tools available in the fruit fly, this paradigm is used for a wide variety of neurobiological research.

استثابي التعلم من ذبابة الفاكهة في عداد عزم الدوران

For experiments at the torque meter, flies are kept on standard fly medium at 25&deg;C and 60% humidity with a 12hr light/12hr dark regime. A standardized ...

Biology

Measuring the Flight Ability of the Ambrosia Beetle, Platypus Quercivorus (Murayama), Using a Low-Cost, Small, and Easily Constructed Flight Mill

The ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama), is the vector of a fungal pathogen that causes mass mortality of Fagaceae trees (Japanese oak wilt). Therefore, knowing the dispersal capacity may help inform trapping/tree removal efforts to prevent this disease more effectively. In this study, we measured the flight velocity and duration and estimated the flight distance of the beetle using a newly developed flight mill. The flight mill is low cost, small, and constructed using commonly available items. Both the flight mill arm and its vertical axis comprise a thin needle. A beetle specimen is glued to one tip of the arm using instant glue. The other tip is thick due to being covered with plastic, thus it facilitates the detection of rotations of the arm. The revolution of the arm is detected by a photo sensor mounted on an infrared LED, and is indicated by a change in the output voltage when the arm passed above the LED. The photo sensor is connected to a personal computer and the output voltage data are stored at a sampling rate of 1 kHz. By conducting experiments using this flight mill, we found that P. quercivorus can fly at least 27 km. Because our flight mill comprises cheap and small ordinary items, many flight mills can be prepared and used simultaneously in a small laboratory space. This enables experimenters to obtain a sufficient amount of data within a short period.

Measuring the Flight Ability of the Ambrosia Beetle, Platypus Quercivorus Murayama, Using a Low-Cost, Small, and Easily Constructed Flight Mill

We developed a low cost and small flight mill, constructed with commonly available items and easily used in experimentation. Using this apparatus, we measured the flight ability of an ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus.

قياس قدرة الطيران خنفساء الطعام الشهي، كويرسيفوروس خلد الماء (موراياما)، استخدام منخفضة التكلفة، والصغيرة، ومطحنة رحلة المركبة بسهولة

The ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama), is the vector of a fungal pathogen that causes mass mortality of Fagaceae trees (Japanese oak wilt). ...

Environment

Using Flight Mills to Measure Flight Propensity and Performance of Western Corn Rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (LeConte)

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is an economically important pest of corn in the northern United States. Some populations have developed resistance to management strategies including transgenic corn that produces insecticidal toxins derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Knowledge of western corn rootworm dispersal is of critical importance for models of resistance evolution, spread, and mitigation. Flight behavior of an insect, especially over a long distance, is inherently difficult to observe and characterize. Flight mills provide a means to directly test developmental and physiological impacts and consequences of flight in the laboratory that cannot be obtained in field studies. In this study, flight mills were used to measure the timing of flight activity, total number of flights, and the distance, duration, and speed of flights taken by female rootworms during a 22-h test period. Sixteen flight mills were housed in an environmental chamber with programmable lighting, temperature, and humidity control. The flight mill described is of a typical design, where a flight arm is free to rotate about a central pivot. Rotation is caused by flight of an insect tethered to one end of the flight arm, and each rotation is recorded by a sensor with a time-stamp. Raw data are compiled by software, which are subsequently processed to provide summary statistics for flight parameters of interest. The most difficult task for any flight mill study is attachment of the tether to the insect with an adhesive, and the method used must be tailored to each species. The attachment must be strong enough to hold the insect in a rigid orientation and to prevent detachment during movement, while not interfering with natural wing motion during flight. The attachment process requires dexterity, finesse, and speed, making video footage of the process for rootworms of value.

Using Flight Mills to Measure Flight Propensity and Performance of Western Corn Rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte

Flight mills are important tools for comparing how age, sex, mating status, temperature, or various other factors may influence an insect&#8217;s flight behavior. Here we describe protocols to tether and measure the flight propensity and performance of western corn rootworm under different treatments.

باستخدام مطاحن الطيران لقياس الميل الطيران والأداء من الجذور الخفية الذرة الغربية ، ديروتيكا virgifera virgifera (leconte)

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is an economically important pest of corn in the northern ...

Extracellular Wire Tetrode Recording in Brain of Freely Walking Insects

Increasing interest in the role of brain activity in insect motor control requires that we be able to monitor neural activity while insects perform natural behavior. We previously developed a technique for implanting tetrode wires into the central complex of cockroach brains that allowed us to record activity from multiple neurons simultaneously while a tethered cockroach turned or altered walking speed. While a major advance, tethered preparations provide access to limited behaviors and often lack feedback processes that occur in freely moving animals. We now present a modified version of that technique that allows us to record from the central complex of freely moving cockroaches as they walk in an arena and deal with barriers by turning, climbing or tunneling. Coupled with high speed video and cluster cutting, we can now relate brain activity to various parameters of the movement of freely behaving insects.

We previously developed a technique for implanting tetrode wires into the central complex of cockroach brains that allows us to monitor activity in individual units of tethered cockroaches. Here we present a modified version of that technique that allows us to also record brain activity in freely moving insects.

خارج الخلية سلك Tetrode تسجيل في الدماغ من المشي بحرية الحشرات

Increasing interest in the role of brain activity in insect motor control requires that we be able to monitor neural activity while insects perform ...

Building an Enhanced Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Insect Flight

Makerspaces have a high potential of enabling researchers to develop new techniques and to work with novel species in ecological research. This protocol demonstrates how to take advantage of the technology found in makerspaces in order to build a more versatile flight mill for a relatively low cost. Given that this study extracted its&#160;prototype from flight mills built in the last decade, this protocol focuses more on outlining divergences made from the simple, modern flight mill. Previous studies have already shown how advantageous flight mills are to measuring flight parameters such as speed, distance, or periodicity. Such mills have allowed researchers to associate these parameters with morphological, physiological, or genetic factors. In addition to these advantages, this study discusses the benefits of using the technology in makerspaces, like 3D printers and laser cutters, in order to build a more flexible, sturdy, and collapsible flight mill design. Most notably, the 3D printed components of this design allow the user to test insects of various sizes by making the heights of the mill arm and infrared (IR) sensors adjustable. The 3D prints also enable the user to easily disassemble the machine for quick storage or transportation to the field. Moreover, this study makes greater use of magnets and magnetic paint to tether insects with minimal stress. Lastly, this protocol details a versatile analysis of flight data through computer scripts that efficiently separate and analyze differentiable flight trials within a single recording. Although more labor-intensive, applying the tools available in makerspaces and on online 3D modeling programs facilitates multidisciplinary and process-orientated practices and helps researchers avoid costly, premade products with narrowly adjustable dimensions. By taking advantage of the flexibility and reproducibility of technology in makerspaces, this protocol promotes creative flight mill design and inspires open science.

This protocol uses three-dimensional (3D) printers and laser cutters found in makerspaces in order to create a more flexible flight mill design. By using this technology, researchers can reduce costs, enhance design flexibility, and generate reproducible work when constructing their flight mills for tethered insect flight studies.

بناء مطحنة طيران معززة لدراسة رحلة الحشرات المربوطة

Makerspaces have a high potential of enabling researchers to develop new techniques and to work with novel species in ecological research. This protocol ...

Engineering

Using Insect Electroantennogram Sensors on Autonomous Robots for Olfactory Searches

Robots designed to track chemical leaks in hazardous industrial facilities1 or explosive traces in landmine fields2 face the same problem as insects foraging for food or searching for mates3: the olfactory search is constrained by the physics of turbulent transport4. The concentration landscape of wind borne odors is discontinuous and consists of sporadically located patches. A pre-requisite to olfactory search is that intermittent odor patches are detected. Because of its high speed and sensitivity5-6, the olfactory organ of insects provides a unique opportunity for detection. Insect antennae have been used in the past to detect not only sex pheromones7 but also chemicals that are relevant to humans, e.g., volatile compounds emanating from cancer cells8 or toxic and illicit substances9-11. We describe here a protocol for using insect antennae on autonomous robots and present a proof of concept for tracking odor plumes to their source. The global response of olfactory neurons is recorded in situ in the form of electroantennograms (EAGs). Our experimental design, based on a whole insect preparation, allows stable recordings within a working day. In comparison, EAGs on excised antennae have a lifetime of 2 hr. A custom hardware/software interface was developed between the EAG electrodes and a robot. The measurement system resolves individual odor patches up to 10 Hz, which exceeds the time scale of artificial chemical sensors12. The efficiency of EAG sensors for olfactory searches is further demonstrated in driving the robot toward a source of pheromone. By using identical olfactory stimuli and sensors as in real animals, our robotic platform provides a direct means for testing biological hypotheses about olfactory coding and search strategies13. It may also prove beneficial for detecting other odorants of interests by combining EAGs from different insect species in a bioelectronic nose configuration14 or using nanostructured gas sensors that mimic insect antennae15.

We describe a protocol for using insect antennae in the form of electroantennograms (EAGs) on autonomous robots. Our experimental design allows stable recordings within a day and resolves individual odor patches up to 10 Hz. The efficiency of EAG sensors for olfactory searches is demonstrated in driving a robot toward an odor source.

باستخدام الحشرات Electroantennogram مجسات على الحكم الذاتي الروبوتات لبحث الشم

Robots designed to track chemical leaks in hazardous industrial facilities1 or explosive traces in landmine fields2 face the same problem as insects ...

Radio Frequency Identification and Motion-sensitive Video Efficiently Automate Recording of Unrewarded Choice Behavior by Bumblebees

We present two methods for observing bumblebee choice behavior in an enclosed testing space. The first method consists of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers built into artificial flowers that display various visual cues, and RFID tags (i.e., passive transponders) glued to the thorax of bumblebee workers. The novelty in our implementation is that RFID readers are built directly into artificial flowers that are capable of displaying several distinct visual properties such as color, pattern type, spatial frequency (i.e., &#8220;busyness&#8221; of the pattern), and symmetry (spatial frequency and symmetry were not manipulated in this experiment). Additionally, these visual displays in conjunction with the automated systems are capable of recording unrewarded and untrained choice behavior. The second method consists of recording choice behavior at artificial flowers using motion-sensitive high-definition camcorders. Bumblebees have number tags glued to their thoraces for unique identification. The advantage in this implementation over RFID is that in addition to observing landing behavior, alternate measures of preference such as hovering and antennation may also be observed. Both automation methods increase experimental control, and internal validity by allowing larger scale studies that take into account individual differences. External validity is also improved because bees can freely enter and exit the testing environment without constraints such as the availability of a research assistant on-site. Compared to human observation in real time, the automated methods are more cost-effective and possibly less error-prone.

This video describes Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) and motion-sensitive video recording methods to monitor choice behavior by bumblebees.

تحديد الهوية بترددات الراديو والفيديو الحركة تراعي بكفاءة أتمتة تسجيل السلوك غير مكافأة الاختيار من النحل

We present two methods for observing bumblebee choice behavior in an enclosed testing space. The first method consists of Radio Frequency Identification ...

A Simple Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Flight in Insects

Flight in insects can be long-range migratory flights, intermediate-range dispersal flights, or short-range host-seeking flights. Previous studies have shown that flight mills are valuable tools for the experimental study of insect flight behavior, allowing researchers to examine how factors such as age, host plants, or population source can influence an insects' propensity to disperse. Flight mills allow researchers to measure components of flight such as speed and distance flown. Lack of detailed information about how to build such a device can make their construction appear to be prohibitively complex. We present a simple and relatively inexpensive flight mill for the study of tethered flight in insects. Experimental insects can be tethered with non-toxic adhesives and revolve around an axis by means of a very low friction magnetic bearing. The mill is designed for the study of flight in controlled conditions as it can be used inside an incubator or environmental chamber. The strongest points are the very simple electronic circuitry, the design that allows sixteen insects to fly simultaneously allowing the collection and analysis of a large number of samples in a short time and the potential to use the device in a very limited workspace. This design is extremely flexible, and we have adjusted the mill to accommodate different species of insects of various sizes.

Flight in insects is influenced by a number of factors and the propensity to disperse is an important variable in understanding insect ecology and biological control strategies. We describe the construction and use of a simple, relatively inexpensive, and flexible flight mill for measuring parameters of tethered flight in insects.

A مطحنة الطيران بسيط لدراسة الطيران في الحشرات مربوط

Flight in insects can be long-range migratory flights, intermediate-range dispersal flights, or short-range host-seeking flights. Previous studies have ...

الحشرات آلة النظام الهجين: التحكم عن بعد راديو سيارة بيتل الطائر بحرية (

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