This material is based on the works supported by Nanyang Assistant Professorship (NAP, M4080740), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) Public Sector Research Funding (PSF, M4070190), A*STAR-JST (The Japan Science and Technology Agency) joint grant (M4070198), and Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE2013-T2-2-049). The authors would like to thank Mr. Roger Tan Kay Chia, Prof. Low Kin Huat, Mr. Poon Kee Chun, Mr. Chew Hock See, Mr. Lam Kim Kheong and Dr. Mao Shixin at School of MAE for their support in setting up and maintaining the research facilities. The authors thank Prof. Michel Maharbiz (U.C. Berkeley) his advice and discussion, Prof. Kris Pister and his group (U.C. Berkeley) for their support in providing the GINA used in this study.

1. Studie Tier <ol><li> Hinten einzelnen Mecynorrhina torquata Käfer (6 cm, 8 g) in getrennten Kunststoffbehälter mit Holzpellet-Bettwäsche. </li><li> Ziehen Sie jedem Käfer eine Tasse Zucker Gelee (12 ml) alle 3 Tage. </li><li> Halten Sie die Temperatur und die Feuchtigkeit der Aufzuchtraum bei 25 ° C und 60% betragen. </li><li> Testen Sie die Flugfähigkeit eines jeden Käfer vor dünnen Drahtelektroden implantiert wird. <ol><li> Werfen Sie vorsichtig mit einem Käfer in die Luft. Wenn der Käfer für länger als 10 Sekunden für 5 aufeinander folgenden Studien fliegen können, schließen, dass die Käfer regelmäßige Flugeigenschaften und verwenden es für nachfolgende Flugexperimente hat. Zurückzuerobern den Käfer, schalten alle Lichter im Raum ab, um es dunkel machen. Dies bewirkt, dass der Käfer Flug zu beenden. Hinweis: Ein Käfer spontan, wenn sie in die Luft freigesetzt, weg zu fliegen beginnt. Es ist besser , die Flugversuche in einem großen geschlossenen Raum wie die in 1 (16 x 8 x 4 m gezeigt durchzuführen <sup&gt; 3 mit einer Motion - Capture - Raum von 12,5 x 8 x 4 m 3), eine fliegende Käfer bewegt sich sehr schnell (ca. 3-5 m / sec) und große Bögen zieht , wenn in der Luft drehen. </li></ol></li></ol> 2. Elektrodenimplantation <ol><li> Anästhesieren den Käfer , indem er in einen Kunststoffbehälter gefüllt mit CO 2 für 1 min 13,16,20-24 platzieren. </li><li> Dentalwachs erweichen, indem sie in heißes Wasser für 10 sec eingetaucht wird. Platzieren Sie den narkotisierten Käfer auf einem Holzblock und immobilisieren sie mit dem erweichten Dentalwachs. Das Dentalwachs kühlt natürlich und verfestigt sich innerhalb von wenigen Minuten. </li><li> Cut isolierte Silberdrähte (127 &amp; mgr; m blank Durchmesser, 178 &amp; mgr; m Durchmesser, wenn sie mit Perfluoralkoxy beschichtet) in Längen von 25 mm als dünne Drahtelektroden für die Implantation zu verwenden. </li><li> Expose 3 mm blanke Silber durch den Isolator an beiden Enden jedes Drahtes flammend. </li><li> Präparieren Sie die Oberfläche der Kutikula des Käfers mit einem spitzen Schere mit einem sma zu erstellenll Fenster von ungefähr 4 x 4 mm auf der metepisternum (Abbildung 2c). Hinweis: Eine weiche braun gefärbte Kutikula wird dann belichtet, wie in den 2c gezeigt - e. Der 3Ax Muskel unterhalb der weichen Nagelhaut entfernt. </li><li> Pierce zwei Löcher auf der freiliegenden braun Kutikula mit einem Insektenstift (Größe 00) mit einem Abstand von 2 mm zwischen den beiden Löchern (Figur 2d). </li><li> Legen Sie zwei Drahtelektroden (einschließlich eine aktive und eine Rückelektroden hergestellt in Schritt 2.4) vorsichtig durch die Löcher und implantieren sie in jedem 3Ax Muskel in einer Tiefe von 3 mm. </li><li> Sichern Sie sich die implantierten Elektroden und halten sie an ihrem Platz zu vermeiden, Kontakt und Kurzschlüsse durch geschmolzenes Bienenwachs fallen auf die Löcher. Bei Bedarf umfließen das Bienenwachs über die Kutikula durch das Bienenwachs mit der Spitze eines heißen Lötkolben zu berühren. Das Bienenwachs erstarrt schnell und verstärkt die Implantation. Hinweis: Um zu überprüfen, ob die Implantation richtig ist, die elytra der Rübele kann die Bewegung des 3Ax Muskel während der elektrischen Stimulation zu beobachten angehoben werden. </li></ol> 3. Wireless-Rucksack Assembly Hinweis: Der Rucksack besteht aus einem eingebauten Radio - Mikrocontroller auf einem 4 geschichteten FR-4 - Board (1,6 x 1,6 cm 2). Der Rucksack wurde von einem Lithium-Polymer-Mikro (3,7 V, 350 mg, 10 mAh) angetrieben. Die Gesamtmasse des Rucksacks einschließlich der Batterie betrug 1,2 ± 0,26 g, die weniger als die Nutzlast des Käfers (30% von 10 g Körpergewicht) ist. Der Rucksack wurde vorprogrammierte drahtlose Kommunikation zu empfangen und hatte zwei Ausgangskanäle. <ol><li> Reinigen Sie die Pronotums Oberfläche (entfernen Sie die Wachsschicht auf der Kutikula) unter Verwendung von doppelseitigen Klebeband. Dann befestigen Sie den Rucksack auf dem Halsschild des Käfers mit einem Stück doppelseitiges Klebeband. </li><li> Verbinden der Enden der implantierten Elektroden mit den Ausgängen des Rucksacks. </li><li> Wickeln Sie retroreflektierende Band um die Mikrobatterie eine Markierung zu erzeugen, for Motion-Capture-Kameras zu erfassen. </li><li> Bringen Sie den Mikrobatterie an die Spitze des Rucksacks ein Stück doppelseitiges Klebeband, so dass die retroreflektierende Band kann durch Motion-Capture-Kameras erfasst werden. </li></ol> 4. Wireless Control System Hinweis: In diesem Fall wird der Begriff drahtlose Steuersystem umfasst einen Empfänger für die Fernbedienung, ein Laptop-Computer den benutzerdefinierten Flugsteuerungssoftware, eine Basisstation, der Rucksack und die Motion-Capture-System auszuführen. <ol><li> Schließen Sie die Basisstation und Empfänger der Fernbedienung auf den Laptop-Computer über USB-Anschlüsse. </li><li> Schalten Sie das Motion-Capture-System und verbinden Sie es mit dem Laptop-Computer über einen Ethernet-Anschluss. </li><li> Führen Volumenkalibrierung durch den Kalibrierungsstab winken (vom Hersteller Unternehmen der Motion-Capture-System zur Verfügung gestellt), um voll und ganz die Motion-Capture-Raum abdecken. <ol><li> Öffnen Sie die Motion-Capture-Software auf dem Desktop des Laptops. Klicken und drag auswählen, um alle Kameras auf dem Menü &quot;System&quot; der &quot;Ressourcen&quot; Panel. </li><li> Klicken Sie auf das &quot;3D-Perspektive&quot; und wählen Sie &quot;Kamera&quot;, um die Kamera-Ansicht zu ändern. Klicken Sie auf die &quot;Kamera&quot; auf die Registerkarte &quot;Tools&quot; Panel die Kalibrierung Setup zu zeigen. Klicken Sie auf &quot;Start&quot; auf &quot;Create Kamera Masken&quot; Menü Lärm von den Kameras zu beseitigen und dann &quot;Stop&quot;, nachdem das Rauschen in Blau maskiert. </li><li> Klicken Sie auf und wählen Sie &quot;5 Marker Wand &amp; L-Frame&quot; von der &quot;Wand&quot; Menü und die &quot;L-Frame&quot; Menü auf der &quot;Kamera&quot; aus. Stellen Sie die &quot;Wand Count&quot; auf 2.500, klicken Sie auf &quot;Start&quot; auf dem &quot;Kalibrieren Kameras&quot; Menü und Welle der Kalibrierungsstab durch die gesamte Motion-Capture-Raum. Der Kalibrierungsvorgang stoppt, wenn der Stab Zahl 2500 erreicht. </li><li> Wiederholen Sie den Kalibrierungsprozess, wenn die Bildfehler (am unteren Rand der &quot;Kamera&quot; Register des Panels &quot;Tools&quot;) höher als 0,3 foder jede Kamera. Nach dem Kalibrieren legte den Stab auf dem Boden in der Mitte des Motion-Capture-Raum und klicken Sie auf &quot;Start&quot; auf &quot;Set Volume Origin&quot; Menü den Ursprung des Motion-Capture-Raum zu setzen. </li></ol></li><li> Überprüfen Sie die Abdeckung des Motion-Capture-System einen Dummy-Test mit dem Bewegungspfad eines Markers durch einen Benutzer in der Motion-Capture-Raum schwenkte aufzeichnen und bestätigen, ob der Marker erkannt und verfolgt. Wenn der Marker häufig während der Erfassung, wiederholen Volumenkalibrierung verloren geht, bis der Dummy-Test erfolgreich ist. <ol><li> Klicken Sie auf die &quot;Aufnahme&quot; auf die Registerkarte &quot;Tools&quot; Panel und dann auf &quot;Start&quot; auf der &quot;Aufnahme&quot; Menü, bevor Sie die Probe Marker durch die gesamte Motion-Capture-Raum winken seine Bahn aufzunehmen. </li><li> Nach der Aufzeichnung klicken Sie auf &quot;Führt die Reconstruct Pipeline&quot;, die Positionen der Marker zu rekonstruieren und die Qualität der Aufnahme überprüfen. </li></ol></li><li> Verbinden Sie die Anschlüsse des microbattery (an dem Rucksack in Schritt 3.4) zu den Power-Pins des Rucksacks. </li><li> Testen Sie die drahtlose Kommunikation zwischen dem Laptop und dem Rucksack die benutzerdefinierte Flugsteuerungssoftware. Klicken Sie auf den &quot;Start&quot; Befehl auf der Software und überprüfen Sie die angezeigten Verbindungsstatus. </li></ol> 5. Free Flight Experiment <ol><li> Führen Sie den freien Flug Experiment in einem Flug Arena messen 16 x 8 x 4 m 3. </li><li> Geben Sie die entsprechenden Parameter für die Flugsteuerungssoftware (Spannung, Impulsbreite, Frequenz und Stimulationsdauer). Anmerkung: Zur Demonstration, fixiert wir die Spannung auf 3 V, Pulsbreite 3 ms und Stimulationsdauer 1 sec und variiert die Frequenz von 60 bis 100 Hz. <ol><li> Auf der Software-Bildschirm, Typ 3 für 3 V in der &quot;Spannung&quot; Feld 1000 für 1.000 ms in der &quot;Stimulation Dauer&quot; Box, 3 für 3 ms im &quot;Pulse Width&quot; Feld und einer gewünschten Frequenz in Hz im &quot; Frequency &quot;Box on das Befehlsfenster. </li></ol></li><li> Lassen Sie den Rucksack montierte Käfer in die Luft durch die frei im Flug Arena zu fliegen. Sie manuell die Stimulation auslösen, wenn der Käfer den Raum Motion-Capture eintritt. Drücken Sie die entsprechende Befehlstaste (links oder rechts) auf der Fernbedienung, um den Zielmuskel auf der linken oder rechten Seite des Käfers zu stimulieren. Hinweis: Sobald die Taste gedrückt wird, erzeugt der Flugsteuerungssoftware auf dem Laptop den Befehl und sendet sie an den Rucksack. Der Rucksack gibt dann den elektrischen Reiz auf den Muskel von Interesse (links oder rechts). </li><li> Beachten Sie die Reaktion des Käfers in Echtzeit während der Stimulation und rekonstruieren die Daten mit 3D-Grafik-Software. <ol><li> Wählen Sie eine der Studien in der Datenliste des &quot;Beetle Display&quot; Fenster aufgezeichnet und klicken Sie auf &quot;Export Panda&quot;, um die Daten dieser Studie auf die Analyse-Ordner kopieren und das 3D-Grafik-Modul ausgeführt werden. </li><li> Drücken Sie auf &quot;N&quot; aufdie Tastatur, um das Reizsignal mit der aufgezeichneten Bewegungsbahn zu verbinden. Drücken Sie I mit den markierten Stimulationsperioden, die Flugbahn des Käfers zu zeigen. </li></ol></li></ol>

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The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Der Implantationsprozess ist wichtig, da es die Zuverlässigkeit des Experiments beeinflusst. Die Elektroden sollten in einer Tiefe von 3 mm oder weniger in den Muskel eingesetzt werden, abhängig von der Größe des Käfers (Vermeidung von Kontakt mit dem nahe gelegenen Muskeln). Wenn die Elektroden, die in der Nähe Muskeln, unerwünschte motorische Handlungen und Verhaltensweisen berühren auftreten können, auf die Kontraktion der Muskeln in der Nähe zurückzuführen ist. Die beiden Elektroden sollte gut ausgericht...

An insect-machine hybrid system, often referred to as a cyborg insect or biobot, is the fusion of a living insect platform with a miniature mounted electronic device. The electronic device, which is wirelessly commanded by a remote user, outputs an electrical signal to electrically stimulate neuromuscular sites in the insect via implanted wire electrodes to induce user desired motor actions and behaviors. In the early stages of this research field, researchers were limited to conducting wireless recording of the muscular action of an insect, using simple analog circuits comprised of surface-mounted components1-3. The development of system-on-a-chip technology with radio frequency functionality enabled not only the wireless recording of neuromuscular signals but also the electrical stimulation of the neuromuscular sites in living insects. At present, a built-in radio microcontroller is small enough to be mounted on living insects without causing any obstructions to their locomotion4-13.
The development of the built-in radio microcontroller allows researchers to determine electrical stimulation protocols to induce desired motor actions to control the locomotion of the insect of interest. On the ground, researchers have demonstrated walking control by stimulating the neuromuscular sites of cockroaches4,12,14, spiders15, and beetles16,17. In the air, the initiation and cessation of flight were achieved using different methods such as the stimulation of the optic lobes (the massive neural cluster of a compound eye) in beetles7,9 and brain sub-regions in bees18, whereas turning control has been demonstrated by stimulating the antennae muscles and nervous system of the abdomens in moths11,19 and the flight muscles of beetles7,9,13. In most cases, a built-in radio microcontroller was integrated on a custom-designed printed circuit board to produce a miniature wireless stimulator (backpack), which was mounted on the insect of interest. This allows wireless electrical stimulation to be applied to a freely walking or flying insect. Such a microcontroller-mounted insect is what is referred to as an insect-machine hybrid system. 
This study describes the experimental protocols for building an insect-machine hybrid system, wherein a living beetle is employed as the insect platform, and instructs on how to operate the robot and test its flight control systems. The third axillary sclerite (3Ax) muscle was chosen as the muscle of interest for electrical stimulation and demonstration of left or right turning control13. A pair of thin silver wire electrodes was implanted in both the left and right 3Ax muscles. Moreover, a backpack was mounted on the living beetle. The other ends of the wire electrode were connected to the output pins of the microcontroller. The backpack was small enough for the beetle to carry in flight. Thus, this allows an experimentalist to remotely stimulate the muscle of interest of an insect in free flight and investigate its reactions to the stimulations.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Mecynorrhina torquata beetle</td><td>Kingdom of Beetle Taiwan</td><td></td><td>10 g, 8 cm, pay load capacity is 30% of the body mass&lt;br/&gt; Aproval of importing and using by Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA; HS code: 01069000, product code: ALV002).</td></tr><tr><td>Wireless backpack stimulator</td><td>Custom</td><td></td><td>TI CC2431 micocontroler&lt;br/&gt; The board is custom made based on the GINA board from Prof. Kris Pister&amp;rsquo;s lab. The layout of GINA board can be found at&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; https://openwsn.atlassian.net/wiki/display/OW/GINA</td></tr><tr><td>Wii Remote control</td><td>Nintendo</td><td></td><td>Bluetooth remote control to send the command to the operator laptop</td></tr><tr><td>BeetleCommander v1.8</td><td>Custom. Maharbiz group at UC Berkeley and Sato group at NTU</td><td></td><td>Establish the wireless communication of the backpack and the operator laptop. Configure the stimulus parameters and log the positional data. Visualize the flight data.</td></tr><tr><td>GINA base station</td><td>Kris Pister group at UC Berkeley</td><td></td><td>TI MSP430F2618 and AT86RF231</td></tr><tr><td>Motion capture system</td><td>VICON</td><td>T160</td><td>8 cameras for a flight arena of 12.5 m x 8 m x 4 m</td></tr><tr><td>Motion capture system</td><td>VICON</td><td>T40s</td><td>12 cameras for a flight arena of 12.5 x 8 x 4 m</td></tr><tr><td>Micro battery</td><td>Fullriver</td><td>&amp;nbsp;201013HS10C&amp;nbsp;</td><td>3.7V, 10 mAh</td></tr><tr><td>Retro reflective tape</td><td>Reflexite</td><td>V92-1549-010150</td><td>V92 reflective tape, silver color</td></tr><tr><td>PFA-Insulated Silver Wire&amp;nbsp;</td><td>A-M systems</td><td>786000</td><td>127 &amp;micro;m bare, 177.8 &amp;micro;m coated, 3 mm bare silver flame exposed at tips</td></tr><tr><td>SMT Micro Header&amp;nbsp;</td><td>SAMTEC</td><td>FTSH-110-01-L-DV</td><td>0.3 mm x 6 mm, bend to make a 3 mm long slider to secure the electrode into the PCB header.</td></tr><tr><td>Beeswax</td><td></td><td></td><td>Secure the electrodes</td></tr><tr><td>Dental Wax</td><td>Vertex</td><td></td><td>Immobilize the beetle</td></tr><tr><td>Insect pin</td><td>ROBOZ</td><td>RS-6082-30</td><td>Size&amp;nbsp; 00; 0.3 mm Rod diameter; 0.03 mm tip width; 38 mm Length&amp;nbsp;&lt;br/&gt; Make electrode guiding holes on cuticle</td></tr><tr><td>Tweezers</td><td>DUMONT</td><td>RS-5015</td><td>Pattern #5; .05 mm x .01 mm Tip Size; 110 mm Length&lt;br/&gt; Dissecting and implantation</td></tr><tr><td>Scissors</td><td>ROBOZ</td><td>RS-5620</td><td>Vannas Micro Dissecting Spring Scissors; Straight; 3mm Cutting Edge; 0.1 mm Tip Width; 3&quot; Overall Length&amp;nbsp;&lt;br/&gt; Dissecting and implantation</td></tr><tr><td>Potable soldering iron</td><td>DAIYO</td><td>DS241</td><td>Reflow beeswax</td></tr><tr><td>Hotplate&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CORNING</td><td>PC-400D</td><td>Melting beeswax and dental wax</td></tr><tr><td>Flourescent lamp</td><td>Philips</td><td>TL5 14W</td><td>Light the entire flight arena with 30 panels (60 x 60 cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). Each panel has 3 lamps.&lt;br/&gt; 14 W, 549 mm x 17 mm&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

insect-machine hybrid system: remote radio control of a freely flying beetle (mercynorrhina torquata)

Der Aufstieg von Radio-fähige digitale elektronische Geräte hat für die Untersuchung im Flug Insekten Verhalten die Verwendung von kleinen drahtlosen neuromuskuläre Recordern und Stimulatoren aufgefordert. Diese Technologie ermöglicht die Entwicklung eines insekten Maschine Hybridsystem einen lebenden Insekts Plattform in diesem Protokoll beschrieben ist. Darüber hinaus stellt dieses Protokoll, um die Systemkonfiguration und Freiflugversuchsverfahren für die Funktion der Flugmuskeln in einem untethered Insekt zu bewerten. Zur Demonstration, gezielte wir die dritte axillären sclerite (3Ax) Muskel zu kontrollieren und nach links oder rechts Drehen eines fliegenden Käfer erreichen. Eine dünne Silberdrahtelektrode wurde auf der 3Ax Muskel auf jeder Seite des Käfers implantiert. Diese verbunden wurden an die Ausgänge eines drahtlosen Rucksack (dh einer neuromuskulären elektrischen Stimulator) , montiert auf dem Halsschild des Käfers. Der Muskel wurde in freiem Flug stimuliert durch die Stimulationsseite alternierend (links oder rechts) oder Verändern der stimulation Frequenz. Der Käfer wandte sich an der ipsilateralen Seite, wenn der Muskel wurde ein abgestuftes Reaktion auf eine Erhöhung der Frequenz angeregt und ausgestellt. Der Implantationsprozess und Volumenkalibrierung der 3-dimensionale Bewegungserfassungskamerasystem müssen mit Sorgfalt durchgeführt werden, um den Muskel nicht beschädigt wird und die Spur des Markers zu verlieren, respectively. Diese Methode ist sehr vorteilhaft Insektenflug zu studieren, da sie die Funktionen des Flugmuskel von Interesse im freien Flug zu offenbaren hilft.

Die Elektrodenimplantationsverfahren ist in Figur 2 dargestellt dünne Silberdrahtelektroden wurden in die 3Ax Muskel des Käfers durch kleine Löcher auf der weichen Kutikula auf den Muskel (Abbildungen 2d - e) durchbohrt implantiert.. Diese weiche Nagelhaut wird knapp über dem apodema des basalar Muskel gefunden , nachdem der vordere Teil des metepisternum Entfernen (Figuren 2d - c). Die Elektroden wu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle Mercynorrhina torquata at JoVE.com

Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle Mercynorrhina torquata

This protocol describes the process of constructing an insect-machine hybrid system and carrying out wireless electrical stimulation of the flight muscles required to control the turning motion of a flying insect.

Insect-Maschine Hybridsystem: Remote Radio Control eines frei fliegenden Käfer (<em&gt; Mercynorrhina torquata</em&gt;)

The rise of radio-enabled digital electronic devices has prompted the use of small wireless neuromuscular recorders and stimulators for studying in-flight ...

insect-machine-hybrid-system-remote-radio-control-freely-flying

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle (Mercynorrhina torquata)

12.2K Aufrufe.  Nanyang Technological University. This protocol describes the process of constructing an insect-machine hybrid system and carrying out wireless electrical stimulation of the flight muscles required to control the turning motion of a flying insect.

Serie: Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle Mercynorrhina torquata

An Experimental Platform to Study the Closed-loop Performance of Brain-machine Interfaces

The non-stationary nature and variability of neuronal signals is a fundamental problem in brain-machine interfacing. We developed a brain-machine interface to assess the robustness of different control-laws applied to a closed-loop image stabilization task. Taking advantage of the well-characterized fly visuomotor pathway we record the electrical activity from an identified, motion-sensitive neuron, H1, to control the yaw rotation of a two-wheeled robot. The robot is equipped with 2 high-speed video cameras providing visual motion input to a fly placed in front of 2 CRT computer monitors. The activity of the H1 neuron indicates the direction and relative speed of the robot's rotation. The neural activity is filtered and fed back into the steering system of the robot by means of proportional and proportional/adaptive control. Our goal is to test and optimize the performance of various control laws under closed-loop conditions for a broader application also in other brain machine interfaces.

We use a closed-loop fly-machine interface to investigate general principles in neuronal control.

Eine experimentelle Plattform für die Closed-Loop-Performance von Brain-Machine Interfaces Study

The non-stationary nature and variability of neuronal signals is a fundamental problem in brain-machine interfacing. We developed a brain-machine ...

Forschung

Neurowissenschaften

Early Metamorphic Insertion Technology for Insect Flight Behavior Monitoring

Early Metamorphosis Insertion Technology (EMIT) is a novel methodology for integrating microfabricated neuromuscular recording and actuation platforms on insects during their metamorphic development. Here, the implants are fused within the structure and function of the neuromuscular system as a result of metamorphic tissue remaking. The implants emerge with the insect where the development of tissue around the electronics during pupal development results in a bioelectrically and biomechanically enhanced tissue interface. This relatively more reliable and stable interface would be beneficial for many researchers exploring the neural basis of the insect locomotion with alleviated traumatic effects caused during adult stage insertions. In this article, we implant our electrodes into the indirect flight muscles of Manduca sexta. Located in the dorsal-thorax, these main flight powering dorsoventral and dorsolongitudinal muscles actuate the wings and supply the mechanical power for up and down strokes. Relative contraction of these two muscle groups has been under investigation to explore how the yaw maneuver is neurophysiologically coordinated. To characterize the flight dynamics, insects are often tethered with wires and their flight is recorded with digital cameras. We also developed a novel way to tether Manduca sexta on a magnetically levitating frame where the insect is connected to a commercially available wireless neural amplifier. This set up can be used to limit the degree of freedom to yawing &#8220;only&#8221; while transmitting the related electromyography signals from dorsoventral and dorsolongitudinal muscle groups.

We present a novel surgical procedure to implant electrodes in Manduca sexta during its early metamorphic stages. This technique allows mechanically stable and electrically reliable coupling with the neuromuscular tissue to study flight neurophysiology dynamics. We also present a novel magnetic levitation platform for tethered studies of insect yaw.

Frühe Metamorphic Insertion Technologie für Fluginsektenverhaltensüberwachung

Early Metamorphosis Insertion Technology (EMIT) is a novel methodology for integrating microfabricated neuromuscular recording and actuation platforms on ...

Verhalten

Measuring the Flight Ability of the Ambrosia Beetle, Platypus Quercivorus (Murayama), Using a Low-Cost, Small, and Easily Constructed Flight Mill

The ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama), is the vector of a fungal pathogen that causes mass mortality of Fagaceae trees (Japanese oak wilt). Therefore, knowing the dispersal capacity may help inform trapping/tree removal efforts to prevent this disease more effectively. In this study, we measured the flight velocity and duration and estimated the flight distance of the beetle using a newly developed flight mill. The flight mill is low cost, small, and constructed using commonly available items. Both the flight mill arm and its vertical axis comprise a thin needle. A beetle specimen is glued to one tip of the arm using instant glue. The other tip is thick due to being covered with plastic, thus it facilitates the detection of rotations of the arm. The revolution of the arm is detected by a photo sensor mounted on an infrared LED, and is indicated by a change in the output voltage when the arm passed above the LED. The photo sensor is connected to a personal computer and the output voltage data are stored at a sampling rate of 1 kHz. By conducting experiments using this flight mill, we found that P. quercivorus can fly at least 27 km. Because our flight mill comprises cheap and small ordinary items, many flight mills can be prepared and used simultaneously in a small laboratory space. This enables experimenters to obtain a sufficient amount of data within a short period.

Measuring the Flight Ability of the Ambrosia Beetle, Platypus Quercivorus Murayama, Using a Low-Cost, Small, and Easily Constructed Flight Mill

We developed a low cost and small flight mill, constructed with commonly available items and easily used in experimentation. Using this apparatus, we measured the flight ability of an ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus.

Messung der Flug Fähigkeit des Käfers Ambrosia, Platypus Quercivorus (Murayama), mit einem Low-Cost, klein und leicht konstruierte Flug Mühle

The ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama), is the vector of a fungal pathogen that causes mass mortality of Fagaceae trees (Japanese oak wilt). ...

Umwelt

A Precise and Autonomous System for the Detection of Insect Emergence Patterns

Existing systems to measure insect emergence patterns have limitations; they are only partially automated and are limited in the maximum number of emerging insects they can detect. In order to obtain precise measurement of insect emergence, it is necessary for systems to be semi-automated and able to measure large numbers of emerging insects. We addressed these issues by designing and building a system that is automated and can measure emergence of up to 1200 insects. We modified the existing &#34;falling-ball&#34; system using Arduino microcontrollers to automate data collection and expand the sample size through multiple data channels. Multiple data channels enable the user to not only increase their sample size, but also allows for multiple treatments to be run simultaneously in a single experiment. Furthermore, we created an R script to automatically visualize the data as a bubble plot, while also calculating the median day and time of emergence. The current system was designed using 3D printing so the user can modify the system to be adjusted for different species of insects. The goal of this protocol is to investigate important questions in chronobiology and stress physiology, using this precise and automated system to measure insect emergence patterns.

Measurement of insect emergence patterns requires precision. Existing systems are only semi-automated and sample size is limited. We addressed these issues by designing a system using microcontrollers to precisely measure the time of emergence of large numbers of emerging insects.

Eine präzise und autonomen System zur Erkennung von Insekten entstehen Muster

Existing systems to measure insect emergence patterns have limitations; they are only partially automated and are limited in the maximum number of ...

Flying Insect Detection and Classification with Inexpensive Sensors

An inexpensive, noninvasive system that could accurately classify flying insects would have important implications for entomological research, and allow for the development of many useful applications in vector and pest control for both medical and agricultural entomology. Given this, the last sixty years have seen many research efforts devoted to this task. To date, however, none of this research has had a lasting impact. In this work, we show that pseudo-acoustic optical sensors can produce superior data; that additional features, both intrinsic and extrinsic to the insect&#8217;s flight behavior, can be exploited to improve insect classification; that a Bayesian classification approach allows to efficiently learn classification models that are very robust to over-fitting, and a general classification framework allows to easily incorporate arbitrary number of features. We demonstrate the findings with large-scale experiments that dwarf all previous works combined, as measured by the number of insects and the number of species considered.

We proposed a system that uses inexpensive, noninvasive pseudo-acoustic optical sensors to automatically and accurately detect, count, and classify flying insects based on their flying sound.

Fliegen-Insekt Erkennung und Klassifizierung mit preiswerten Sensoren

An inexpensive, noninvasive system that could accurately classify flying insects would have important implications for entomological research, and allow ...

Biotechnik

Building an Enhanced Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Insect Flight

Makerspaces have a high potential of enabling researchers to develop new techniques and to work with novel species in ecological research. This protocol demonstrates how to take advantage of the technology found in makerspaces in order to build a more versatile flight mill for a relatively low cost. Given that this study extracted its&#160;prototype from flight mills built in the last decade, this protocol focuses more on outlining divergences made from the simple, modern flight mill. Previous studies have already shown how advantageous flight mills are to measuring flight parameters such as speed, distance, or periodicity. Such mills have allowed researchers to associate these parameters with morphological, physiological, or genetic factors. In addition to these advantages, this study discusses the benefits of using the technology in makerspaces, like 3D printers and laser cutters, in order to build a more flexible, sturdy, and collapsible flight mill design. Most notably, the 3D printed components of this design allow the user to test insects of various sizes by making the heights of the mill arm and infrared (IR) sensors adjustable. The 3D prints also enable the user to easily disassemble the machine for quick storage or transportation to the field. Moreover, this study makes greater use of magnets and magnetic paint to tether insects with minimal stress. Lastly, this protocol details a versatile analysis of flight data through computer scripts that efficiently separate and analyze differentiable flight trials within a single recording. Although more labor-intensive, applying the tools available in makerspaces and on online 3D modeling programs facilitates multidisciplinary and process-orientated practices and helps researchers avoid costly, premade products with narrowly adjustable dimensions. By taking advantage of the flexibility and reproducibility of technology in makerspaces, this protocol promotes creative flight mill design and inspires open science.

This protocol uses three-dimensional (3D) printers and laser cutters found in makerspaces in order to create a more flexible flight mill design. By using this technology, researchers can reduce costs, enhance design flexibility, and generate reproducible work when constructing their flight mills for tethered insect flight studies.

Bau einer verbesserten Flugmühle für die Untersuchung des Fluges mit angebundenen Insekten

Makerspaces have a high potential of enabling researchers to develop new techniques and to work with novel species in ecological research. This protocol ...

Ingenieurwesen

Electroantennography-based Bio-hybrid Odor-detecting Drone using Silkmoth Antennae for Odor Source Localization

Small drones with chemical or biosensor devices that can detect airborne odorant molecules have attracted considerable attention owing to their applicability in environmental and security monitoring and search-and-rescue operations. Small drones with commercial metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOX) gas sensors have been developed for odor source localization; however, their real-time-odor-detection performance has proven inadequate. However, biosensing technologies based on insect olfactory systems exhibit relatively high sensitivity, selectivity, and real-time response with respect to odorant molecules compared to commercial MOX gas sensors. In such devices, excised insect antennae function as portable odorant biosensor elements and have been found to deliver excellent sensing performance. This study presents experimental protocols for odorant-molecule detection in the air using a small autonomous bio-hybrid drone based on a mountable electroantennography (EAG) device incorporating silkmoth antennae.
We developed a mountable EAG device including sensing/processing parts with a Wi-Fi module. The device was equipped with a simple sensor enclosure to enhance the sensor directivity. Thus, odor source localization was conducted using the spiral-surge algorithm, which does not assume an upwind direction. The experimental bio-hybrid odor-detecting drone identified real-time odorant-concentration differences in a pseudo-open environment (outside a wind tunnel) and localized the source. The developed drone and associated system can serve as an efficient odorant molecule-detection tool and a suitable flight platform for developing odor source localization algorithms owing to its high programmability.

This study introduces experimental protocols for a bio-hybrid odor-detecting drone based on silkmoth antennae. The operation of an experimental electroantennogram device with silkmoth antennae is presented, in addition to the structure of a bio-hybrid drone designed for odor source localization using the spiral-surge algorithm.

Elektroantennen-basierte Bio-Hybrid-Geruchserkennungsdrohne mit Seidenmottenantennen zur Lokalisierung von Geruchsquellen

Small drones with chemical or biosensor devices that can detect airborne odorant molecules have attracted considerable attention owing to their ...

Radio Frequency Identification and Motion-sensitive Video Efficiently Automate Recording of Unrewarded Choice Behavior by Bumblebees

We present two methods for observing bumblebee choice behavior in an enclosed testing space. The first method consists of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers built into artificial flowers that display various visual cues, and RFID tags (i.e., passive transponders) glued to the thorax of bumblebee workers. The novelty in our implementation is that RFID readers are built directly into artificial flowers that are capable of displaying several distinct visual properties such as color, pattern type, spatial frequency (i.e., &#8220;busyness&#8221; of the pattern), and symmetry (spatial frequency and symmetry were not manipulated in this experiment). Additionally, these visual displays in conjunction with the automated systems are capable of recording unrewarded and untrained choice behavior. The second method consists of recording choice behavior at artificial flowers using motion-sensitive high-definition camcorders. Bumblebees have number tags glued to their thoraces for unique identification. The advantage in this implementation over RFID is that in addition to observing landing behavior, alternate measures of preference such as hovering and antennation may also be observed. Both automation methods increase experimental control, and internal validity by allowing larger scale studies that take into account individual differences. External validity is also improved because bees can freely enter and exit the testing environment without constraints such as the availability of a research assistant on-site. Compared to human observation in real time, the automated methods are more cost-effective and possibly less error-prone.

This video describes Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) and motion-sensitive video recording methods to monitor choice behavior by bumblebees.

Radio Frequency Identification und bewegungssensitiven Video effizient zu automatisieren Aufnahme von unbelohnt Wahlverhalten von Hummeln

We present two methods for observing bumblebee choice behavior in an enclosed testing space. The first method consists of Radio Frequency Identification ...

A Simple Flight Mill for the Study of Tethered Flight in Insects

Flight in insects can be long-range migratory flights, intermediate-range dispersal flights, or short-range host-seeking flights. Previous studies have shown that flight mills are valuable tools for the experimental study of insect flight behavior, allowing researchers to examine how factors such as age, host plants, or population source can influence an insects' propensity to disperse. Flight mills allow researchers to measure components of flight such as speed and distance flown. Lack of detailed information about how to build such a device can make their construction appear to be prohibitively complex. We present a simple and relatively inexpensive flight mill for the study of tethered flight in insects. Experimental insects can be tethered with non-toxic adhesives and revolve around an axis by means of a very low friction magnetic bearing. The mill is designed for the study of flight in controlled conditions as it can be used inside an incubator or environmental chamber. The strongest points are the very simple electronic circuitry, the design that allows sixteen insects to fly simultaneously allowing the collection and analysis of a large number of samples in a short time and the potential to use the device in a very limited workspace. This design is extremely flexible, and we have adjusted the mill to accommodate different species of insects of various sizes.

Flight in insects is influenced by a number of factors and the propensity to disperse is an important variable in understanding insect ecology and biological control strategies. We describe the construction and use of a simple, relatively inexpensive, and flexible flight mill for measuring parameters of tethered flight in insects.

Ein einfacher Flug Mühle für das Studium der Flug Tethered in Insekten

Flight in insects can be long-range migratory flights, intermediate-range dispersal flights, or short-range host-seeking flights. Previous studies have ...

Insect-controlled Robot: A Mobile Robot Platform to Evaluate the Odor-tracking Capability of an Insect

Robotic odor source localization has been a challenging area and one to which biological knowledge has been expected to contribute, as finding odor sources is an essential task for organism survival. Insects are well-studied organisms with regard to odor tracking, and their behavioral strategies have been applied to mobile robots for evaluation. This "bottom-up" approach is a fundamental way to develop biomimetic robots; however, the biological analyses and the modeling of behavioral mechanisms are still ongoing. Therefore, it is still unknown how such a biological system actually works as the controller of a robotic platform. To answer this question, we have developed an insect-controlled robot in which a male adult silkmoth (Bombyx mori) drives a robot car in response to odor stimuli; this can be regarded as a prototype of a future insect-mimetic robot. In the cockpit of the robot, a tethered silkmoth walked on an air-supported ball and an optical sensor measured the ball rotations. These rotations were translated into the movement of the two-wheeled robot. The advantage of this "hybrid" approach is that experimenters can manipulate any parameter of the robot, which enables the evaluation of the odor-tracking capability of insects and provides useful suggestions for robotic odor-tracking. Furthermore, these manipulations are non-invasive ways to alter the sensory-motor relationship of a pilot insect and will be a useful technique for understanding adaptive behaviors.

The capability to localize an odor source is necessary for insect survival and is expected to be applicable to artificial odor-tracking. The insect-controlled robot is driven by an actual silkmoth and enables us to evaluate the odor-tracking capability of insects through a robotic platform.

Insekt gesteuerte Roboter: Ein mobiler Roboter-Plattform, die geruchs Tracking-Fähigkeit eines Insekts zur Bewertung

Robotic odor source localization has been a challenging area and one to which biological knowledge has been expected to contribute, as finding odor ...

Insect-Maschine Hybridsystem: Remote Radio Control eines frei fliegenden Käfer (

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